S-NITROSOTHIOL-MEDIATED HYPERBRANCHED POLYESTERS
This Application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 62/405,655, filed on Oct. 7, 2016, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. This invention was made with government support under Grant No. DE025207 awarded by the National Institutes of Health (NIH). The government has certain rights in the invention. Nitric oxide (NO) is an endogenously produced diatomic free radical that mediates angiogenesis (J. P. Cooke, Recent research has focused on the synthesis of macromolecular NO-release scaffolds to enhance NO payloads and enable greater tunability of the NO-release kinetics relative to that achieved using small molecule NO donors (H. P. Zhang, G. M. Annich, J. Miskulin, K. Stankiewicz, K. Osterholzer, S. I. Merz, R. H. Bartlett and M. E. Meyerhoff, Polyesters represent an alternative polymeric NO-release scaffold with potentially useful biodegradation properties (T. Liu, W. Zhang, X. Yang and C. Li, Hyperbranched polyesters are a family of polymers with multivalent structures and diverse exterior functionalities (B. I. Voit and A. Lederer, Despite the interest in hyperbranched polyesters for biomedical applications due to the ease of synthesis, biodegradability, and solubility of these polymers, the development and use of hyperbranched polyesters for NO-release applications has remained elusive. Accordingly, there remains a need for NO-donor modified hyperbranched polymers and methods of making and using same. In accordance with the purpose(s) of the invention, as embodied and broadly described herein, the invention, in one aspect, relates to degradable polymers useful in, for example, delivering nitric oxide to a target and/or treating a disorder in a subject. Disclosed are degradable polymers comprising: (a) a biodegradable polymer backbone; (b) at least one nitric oxide linker moiety pendant from the polymer backbone; and (c) at least one nitric oxide molecule covalently bonded to the nitric oxide linker moiety. Also disclosed are polymers comprising: (a) a biodegradable polymer backbone; and (b) at least one nitric oxide linker moiety pendant from the polymer backbone. Also disclosed are methods of making a polymer, the method comprising: (a) reacting a polymer comprising at least one hydroxyl group and acryloyl halide to form a vinyl-functionalized polymer; and (b) reacting the vinyl-functionalized polymer with a dinucleophile to form a polymer scaffold, thereby making the polymer. Also disclosed are methods of making a degradable polymer, the method comprising the step of functionalizing a polymer scaffold with a nitric oxide donor, wherein the polymer scaffold comprises: (a) a biodegradable polymer backbone; and (b) at least one nitric oxide linker moiety pendant from the polymer backbone, thereby making the degradable polymer. Also disclosed are methods of delivering nitric oxide to a target, the method comprising: (a) administering to the target an effective amount of a degradable polymer comprising: (i) a biodegradable polymer backbone; (ii) at least one nitric oxide linker moiety pendant from the polymer backbone; and (iii) at least one nitric oxide molecule covalently bonded to the nitric oxide linker moiety; and (b) exposing the degradable polymer to at least one of heat, light, copper, a free thiol, and/or a proton source, thereby delivering nitric oxide to the target. Also disclosed are methods for the treatment of a disorder in a subject, the method comprising the step of administering to the subject an effective amount of a degradable polymer comprising: (a) a biodegradable polymer backbone; (b) at least one nitric oxide linker moiety pendant from the polymer backbone; and (c) at least one nitric oxide molecule covalently bonded to the nitric oxide linker moiety. Also disclosed are medical devices comprising a nitric oxide-releasing polymeric film, wherein the polymer film comprises an effective amount of at least one polymer comprising: (a) a polymer backbone; (b) at least one nitric oxide linker moiety pendant from the polymer backbone; and (c) at least one nitric oxide molecule covalently bonded to the nitric oxide linker moiety. Also disclosed are pharmaceutical compositions comprising a therapeutically effective amount of at least one degradable polymer comprising: (a) a biodegradable polymer backbone; (b) at least one nitric oxide linker moiety pendant from the polymer backbone; and (c) at least one nitric oxide molecule covalently bonded to the nitric oxide linker moiety, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. While aspects of the present invention can be described and claimed in a particular statutory class, such as the system statutory class, this is for convenience only and one of skill in the art will understand that each aspect of the present invention can be described and claimed in any statutory class. Unless otherwise expressly stated, it is in no way intended that any method or aspect set forth herein be construed as requiring that its steps be performed in a specific order. Accordingly, where a method claim does not specifically state in the claims or descriptions that the steps are to be limited to a specific order, it is no way intended that an order be inferred, in any respect. This holds for any possible non-express basis for interpretation, including matters of logic with respect to arrangement of steps or operational flow, plain meaning derived from grammatical organization or punctuation, or the number or type of aspects described in the specification. The accompanying figures, which are incorporated in and constitute a part of this specification, illustrate several aspects and together with the description serve to explain the principles of the invention. Additional advantages of the invention will be set forth in part in the description which follows, and in part will be obvious from the description, or can be learned by practice of the invention. The advantages of the invention will be realized and attained by means of the elements and combinations particularly pointed out in the appended claims. It is to be understood that both the foregoing general description and the following detailed description are exemplary and explanatory only and are not restrictive of the invention, as claimed. The present invention can be understood more readily by reference to the following detailed description of the invention and the Examples included therein. Before the present compounds, compositions, articles, systems, devices, and/or methods are disclosed and described, it is to be understood that they are not limited to specific synthetic methods unless otherwise specified, or to particular reagents unless otherwise specified, as such may, of course, vary. It is also to be understood that the terminology used herein is for the purpose of describing particular aspects only and is not intended to be limiting. Although any methods and materials similar or equivalent to those described herein can be used in the practice or testing of the present invention, example methods and materials are now described. While aspects of the present invention can be described and claimed in a particular statutory class, such as the system statutory class, this is for convenience only and one of skill in the art will understand that each aspect of the present invention can be described and claimed in any statutory class. Unless otherwise expressly stated, it is in no way intended that any method or aspect set forth herein be construed as requiring that its steps be performed in a specific order. Accordingly, where a method claim does not specifically state in the claims or descriptions that the steps are to be limited to a specific order, it is no way intended that an order be inferred, in any respect. This holds for any possible non-express basis for interpretation, including matters of logic with respect to arrangement of steps or operational flow, plain meaning derived from grammatical organization or punctuation, or the number or type of aspects described in the specification. Throughout this application, various publications are referenced. The disclosures of these publications in their entireties are hereby incorporated by reference into this application in order to more fully describe the state of the art to which this pertains. The references disclosed are also individually and specifically incorporated by reference herein for the material contained in them that is discussed in the sentence in which the reference is relied upon. Nothing herein is to be construed as an admission that the present invention is not entitled to antedate such publication by virtue of prior invention. Further, the dates of publication provided herein may be different from the actual publication dates, which can require independent confirmation. As used in the specification and the appended claims, the singular forms “a,” “an” and “the” include plural referents unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. Thus, for example, reference to “a functional group,” “an alkyl,” or “a residue” includes mixtures of two or more such functional groups, alkyls, or residues, and the like. Ranges can be expressed herein as from “about” one particular value, and/or to “about” another particular value. When such a range is expressed, a further aspect includes from the one particular value and/or to the other particular value. Similarly, when values are expressed as approximations, by use of the antecedent “about,” it will be understood that the particular value forms a further aspect. It will be further understood that the endpoints of each of the ranges are significant both in relation to the other endpoint, and independently of the other endpoint. It is also understood that there are a number of values disclosed herein, and that each value is also herein disclosed as “about” that particular value in addition to the value itself. For example, if the value “10” is disclosed, then “about 10” is also disclosed. It is also understood that each unit between two particular units are also disclosed. For example, if 10 and 15 are disclosed, then 11, 12, 13, and 14 are also disclosed. References in the specification and concluding claims to parts by weight of a particular element or component in a composition denotes the weight relationship between the element or component and any other elements or components in the composition or article for which a part by weight is expressed. Thus, in a compound containing 2 parts by weight of component X and 5 parts by weight component Y, X and Y are present at a weight ratio of 2:5, and are present in such ratio regardless of whether additional components are contained in the compound. A weight percent (wt. %) of a component, unless specifically stated to the contrary, is based on the total weight of the formulation or composition in which the component is included. As used herein, the terms “optional” or “optionally” means that the subsequently described event or circumstance can or cannot occur, and that the description includes instances where said event or circumstance occurs and instances where it does not. As used herein, the term “catalytically effective” refers to the amount of a catalyst that is sufficient to facilitate a reaction (e.g., atom-transfer radical polymerization as disclosed herein). As used herein, the term “polymer” refers to a relatively high molecular weight organic compound, natural or synthetic, whose structure can be represented by a repeated small unit, the monomer (e.g., monomethacryloxypropyl terminated polydimethylsiloxane.). Synthetic polymers are typically formed by addition or condensation polymerization of monomers. As used herein, the term “copolymer” refers to a polymer formed from two or more different repeating units (monomer residues). By way of example and without limitation, a copolymer can be an alternating copolymer, a random copolymer, a block copolymer, or a graft copolymer. It is also contemplated that, in certain aspects, various block segments of a block copolymer can themselves comprise copolymers. As used herein, the term “molecular weight” (MW) refers to the mass of one molecule of that substance, relative to the unified atomic mass unit u (equal to 1/12 the mass of one atom of carbon-12). As used herein, the term “derivative” refers to a compound having a structure derived from the structure of a parent compound (e.g., a compound disclosed herein) and whose structure is sufficiently similar to those disclosed herein and based upon that similarity, would be expected by one skilled in the art to exhibit the same or similar activities and utilities as the claimed compounds, or to induce, as a precursor, the same or similar activities and utilities as the claimed compounds. Exemplary derivatives include salts, esters, amides, salts of esters or amides, and N-oxides of a parent compound. A residue of a chemical species, as used in the specification and concluding claims, refers to the moiety that is the resulting product of the chemical species in a particular reaction scheme or subsequent formulation or chemical product, regardless of whether the moiety is actually obtained from the chemical species. Thus, an ethylene glycol residue in a polyester refers to one or more —OCH2CH2O— units in the polyester, regardless of whether ethylene glycol was used to prepare the polyester. Similarly, a sebacic acid residue in a polyester refers to one or more —CO(CH2)8CO— moieties in the polyester, regardless of whether the residue is obtained by reacting sebacic acid or an ester thereof to obtain the polyester. As used herein, the term “substituted” is contemplated to include all permissible substituents of organic compounds. In a broad aspect, the permissible substituents include acyclic and cyclic, branched and unbranched, carbocyclic and heterocyclic, and aromatic and nonaromatic substituents of organic compounds. Illustrative substituents include, for example, those described below. The permissible substituents can be one or more and the same or different for appropriate organic compounds. For purposes of this disclosure, the heteroatoms, such as nitrogen, can have hydrogen substituents and/or any permissible substituents of organic compounds described herein which satisfy the valences of the heteroatoms. This disclosure is not intended to be limited in any manner by the permissible substituents of organic compounds. Also, the terms “substitution” or “substituted with” include the implicit proviso that such substitution is in accordance with permitted valence of the substituted atom and the substituent, and that the substitution results in a stable compound, e.g., a compound that does not spontaneously undergo transformation such as by rearrangement, cyclization, elimination, etc. It is also contemplated that, in certain aspects, unless expressly indicated to the contrary, individual substituents can be further optionally substituted (i.e., further substituted or unsubstituted). In defining various terms, “A1,” “A2,” “A3,” and “A4” are used herein as generic symbols to represent various specific substituents. These symbols can be any substituent, not limited to those disclosed herein, and when they are defined to be certain substituents in one instance, they can, in another instance, be defined as some other substituents. The term “aliphatic” or “aliphatic group,” as used herein, denotes a hydrocarbon moiety that may be straight-chain (i.e., unbranched), branched, or cyclic (including fused, bridging, and spirofused polycyclic) and may be completely saturated or may contain one or more units of unsaturation, but which is not aromatic. Unless otherwise specified, aliphatic groups contain 1-20 carbon atoms. Aliphatic groups include, but are not limited to, linear or branched, alkyl, alkenyl, and alkynyl groups, and hybrids thereof such as (cycloalkyl)alkyl, (cycloalkenyl)alkyl or (cycloalkyl)alkenyl. The term “alkyl” as used herein is a branched or unbranched saturated hydrocarbon group of 1 to 24 carbon atoms, such as methyl, ethyl, n-propyl, isopropyl, n-butyl, isobutyl, s-butyl, t-butyl, n-pentyl, isopentyl, s-pentyl, neopentyl, hexyl, heptyl, octyl, nonyl, decyl, dodecyl, tetradecyl, hexadecyl, eicosyl, tetracosyl, and the like. The alkyl group can be cyclic or acyclic. The alkyl group can be branched or unbranched. The alkyl group can also be substituted or unsubstituted. For example, the alkyl group can be substituted with one or more groups including, but not limited to, alkyl, cycloalkyl, alkoxy, amino, ether, halide, hydroxy, nitro, silyl, sulfo-oxo, or thiol, as described herein. A “lower alkyl” group is an alkyl group containing from one to six (e.g., from one to four) carbon atoms. Throughout the specification “alkyl” is generally used to refer to both unsubstituted alkyl groups and substituted alkyl groups; however, substituted alkyl groups are also specifically referred to herein by identifying the specific substituent(s) on the alkyl group. For example, the term “halogenated alkyl” or “haloalkyl” specifically refers to an alkyl group that is substituted with one or more halide, e.g., fluorine, chlorine, bromine, or iodine. The term “alkoxyalkyl” specifically refers to an alkyl group that is substituted with one or more alkoxy groups, as described below. The term “alkylamino” specifically refers to an alkyl group that is substituted with one or more amino groups, as described below, and the like. When “alkyl” is used in one instance and a specific term such as “alkylalcohol” is used in another, it is not meant to imply that the term “alkyl” does not also refer to specific terms such as “alkylalcohol” and the like. This practice is also used for other groups described herein. That is, while a term such as “cycloalkyl” refers to both unsubstituted and substituted cycloalkyl moieties, the substituted moieties can, in addition, be specifically identified herein; for example, a particular substituted cycloalkyl can be referred to as, e.g., an “alkylcycloalkyl.” Similarly, a substituted alkoxy can be specifically referred to as, e.g., a “halogenated alkoxy,” a particular substituted alkenyl can be, e.g., an “alkenylalcohol,” and the like. Again, the practice of using a general term, such as “cycloalkyl,” and a specific term, such as “alkylcycloalkyl,” is not meant to imply that the general term does not also include the specific term. The term “cycloalkyl” as used herein is a non-aromatic carbon-based ring composed of at least three carbon atoms. Examples of cycloalkyl groups include, but are not limited to, cyclopropyl, cyclobutyl, cyclopentyl, cyclohexyl, norbornyl, and the like. The term “heterocycloalkyl” is a type of cycloalkyl group as defined above, and is included within the meaning of the term “cycloalkyl,” where at least one of the carbon atoms of the ring is replaced with a heteroatom such as, but not limited to, nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur, or phosphorus. The cycloalkyl group and heterocycloalkyl group can be substituted or unsubstituted. The cycloalkyl group and heterocycloalkyl group can be substituted with one or more groups including, but not limited to, alkyl, cycloalkyl, alkoxy, amino, ether, halide, hydroxy, nitro, silyl, sulfo-oxo, or thiol as described herein. The terms “alkoxy” and “alkoxyl” as used herein to refer to an alkyl or cycloalkyl group bonded through an ether linkage; that is, an “alkoxy” group can be defined as —OA1where A1is alkyl or cycloalkyl as defined above. “Alkoxy” also includes polymers of alkoxy groups as just described; that is, an alkoxy can be a polyether such as —OA′-OA2or —OA1-(OA2)a-OA3, where “a” is an integer of from 1 to 200 and A1, A2, and A3are alkyl and/or cycloalkyl groups. The term “alkenyl” as used herein is a hydrocarbon group of from 2 to 24 carbon atoms with a structural formula containing at least one carbon-carbon double bond. Asymmetric structures such as (A1A2)C═C(A3A4) are intended to include both the E and Z isomers. This can be presumed in structural formulae herein wherein an asymmetric alkene is present, or it can be explicitly indicated by the bond symbol C═C. The alkenyl group can be substituted with one or more groups including, but not limited to, alkyl, cycloalkyl, alkoxy, alkenyl, cycloalkenyl, alkynyl, cycloalkynyl, aryl, heteroaryl, aldehyde, amino, carboxylic acid, ester, ether, halide, hydroxy, ketone, azide, nitro, silyl, sulfo-oxo, or thiol, as described herein. The term “cycloalkenyl” as used herein is a non-aromatic carbon-based ring composed of at least three carbon atoms and containing at least one carbon-carbon double bound, i.e., C═C. Examples of cycloalkenyl groups include, but are not limited to, cyclopropenyl, cyclobutenyl, cyclopentenyl, cyclopentadienyl, cyclohexenyl, cyclohexadienyl, norbornenyl, and the like. The term “heterocycloalkenyl” is a type of cycloalkenyl group as defined above, and is included within the meaning of the term “cycloalkenyl,” where at least one of the carbon atoms of the ring is replaced with a heteroatom such as, but not limited to, nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur, or phosphorus. The cycloalkenyl group and heterocycloalkenyl group can be substituted or unsubstituted. The cycloalkenyl group and heterocycloalkenyl group can be substituted with one or more groups including, but not limited to, alkyl, cycloalkyl, alkoxy, alkenyl, cycloalkenyl, alkynyl, cycloalkynyl, aryl, heteroaryl, aldehyde, amino, carboxylic acid, ester, ether, halide, hydroxy, ketone, azide, nitro, silyl, sulfo-oxo, or thiol as described herein. The term “alkynyl” as used herein is a hydrocarbon group of 2 to 24 carbon atoms with a structural formula containing at least one carbon-carbon triple bond. The alkynyl group can be unsubstituted or substituted with one or more groups including, but not limited to, alkyl, cycloalkyl, alkoxy, alkenyl, cycloalkenyl, alkynyl, cycloalkynyl, aryl, heteroaryl, aldehyde, amino, carboxylic acid, ester, ether, halide, hydroxy, ketone, azide, nitro, silyl, sulfo-oxo, or thiol, as described herein. The term “cycloalkynyl” as used herein is a non-aromatic carbon-based ring composed of at least seven carbon atoms and containing at least one carbon-carbon triple bound. Examples of cycloalkynyl groups include, but are not limited to, cycloheptynyl, cyclooctynyl, cyclononynyl, and the like. The term “heterocycloalkynyl” is a type of cycloalkenyl group as defined above, and is included within the meaning of the term “cycloalkynyl,” where at least one of the carbon atoms of the ring is replaced with a heteroatom such as, but not limited to, nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur, or phosphorus. The cycloalkynyl group and heterocycloalkynyl group can be substituted or unsubstituted. The cycloalkynyl group and heterocycloalkynyl group can be substituted with one or more groups including, but not limited to, alkyl, cycloalkyl, alkoxy, alkenyl, cycloalkenyl, alkynyl, cycloalkynyl, aryl, heteroaryl, aldehyde, amino, carboxylic acid, ester, ether, halide, hydroxy, ketone, azide, nitro, silyl, sulfo-oxo, or thiol as described herein. The term “aromatic group” as used herein refers to a ring structure having cyclic clouds of delocalized π electrons above and below the plane of the molecule, where the π clouds contain (4n+2) π electrons. A further discussion of aromaticity is found in Morrison and Boyd, Organic Chemistry, (5th Ed., 1987), Chapter 13, entitled “Aromaticity,” pages 477-497, incorporated herein by reference. The term “aromatic group” is inclusive of both aryl and heteroaryl groups. The term “aryl” as used herein is a group that contains any carbon-based aromatic group including, but not limited to, benzene, naphthalene, phenyl, biphenyl, phenoxybenzene, and the like. The term “aryl” also includes “heteroaryl,” which is defined as a group that contains an aromatic group that has at least one heteroatom incorporated within the ring of the aromatic group. Examples of heteroatoms include, but are not limited to, nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur, and phosphorus. Likewise, the term “non-heteroaryl,” which is also included in the term “aryl,” defines a group that contains an aromatic group that does not contain a heteroatom. The aryl group can be substituted or unsubstituted. The aryl group can be substituted with one or more groups including, but not limited to, alkyl, cycloalkyl, alkoxy, alkenyl, cycloalkenyl, alkynyl, cycloalkynyl, aryl, heteroaryl, aldehyde, amino, carboxylic acid, ester, ether, halide, hydroxy, ketone, azide, nitro, silyl, sulfo-oxo, or thiol as described herein. The term “biaryl” is a specific type of aryl group and is included in the definition of “aryl.” Biaryl refers to two aryl groups that are bound together via a fused ring structure, as in naphthalene, or are attached via one or more carbon-carbon bonds, as in biphenyl. The term “aldehyde” as used herein is represented by the formula —C(O)H. Throughout this specification “C(O)” is a short hand notation for a carbonyl group, i.e., C═O. The terms “amine” or “amino” as used herein are represented by the formula —NA1A2, where A1and A2can be, independently, hydrogen or alkyl, cycloalkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkenyl, alkynyl, cycloalkynyl, aryl, or heteroaryl group as described herein. The term “alkylamino” as used herein is represented by the formula —NH(-alkyl) where alkyl is a described herein. Representative examples include, but are not limited to, methylamino group, ethylamino group, propylamino group, isopropylamino group, butylamino group, isobutylamino group, (sec-butyl)amino group, (tert-butyl)amino group, pentylamino group, isopentylamino group, (tert-pentyl)amino group, hexylamino group, and the like. The term “dialkylamino” as used herein is represented by the formula —N(-alkyl)2where alkyl is a described herein. Representative examples include, but are not limited to, dimethylamino group, diethylamino group, dipropylamino group, diisopropylamino group, dibutylamino group, diisobutylamino group, di(sec-butyl)amino group, di(tert-butyl)amino group, dipentylamino group, diisopentylamino group, di(tert-pentyl)amino group, dihexylamino group, N-ethyl-N-methylamino group, N-methyl-N-propylamino group, N-ethyl-N-propylamino group and the like. The term “carboxylic acid” as used herein is represented by the formula —C(O)OH. The term “ester” as used herein is represented by the formula —OC(O)A′ or —C(O)OA1, where A1can be alkyl, cycloalkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkenyl, alkynyl, cycloalkynyl, aryl, or heteroaryl group as described herein. The term “polyester” as used herein is represented by the formula -(A1O(O)C-A2-C(O)O)a— or -(A1O(O)C-A2-OC(O))a—, where A1and A2can be, independently, an alkyl, cycloalkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkenyl, alkynyl, cycloalkynyl, aryl, or heteroaryl group described herein and “a” is an integer from 1 to 500. “Polyester” is as the term used to describe a group that is produced by the reaction between a compound having at least two carboxylic acid groups with a compound having at least two hydroxyl groups. The term “ether” as used herein is represented by the formula A1OA2, where A1and A2can be, independently, an alkyl, cycloalkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkenyl, alkynyl, cycloalkynyl, aryl, or heteroaryl group described herein. The term “polyether” as used herein is represented by the formula -(A1O-A2O)a—, where A1and A2can be, independently, an alkyl, cycloalkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkenyl, alkynyl, cycloalkynyl, aryl, or heteroaryl group described herein and “a” is an integer of from 1 to 500. Examples of polyether groups include polyethylene oxide, polypropylene oxide, and polybutylene oxide. The terms “halo,” “halogen” or “halide”, as used herein can be used interchangeably and refer to F, Cl, Br, or I. The terms “pseudohalide,” “pseudohalogen” or “pseudohalo,” as used herein can be used interchangeably and refer to functional groups that behave substantially similar to halides. Such functional groups include, by way of example, cyano, thiocyanato, azido, trifluoromethyl, trifluoromethoxy, perfluoroalkyl, and perfluoroalkoxy groups. The term “heteroalkyl,” as used herein refers to an alkyl group containing at least one heteroatom. Suitable heteroatoms include, but are not limited to, O, N, Si, P and S, wherein the nitrogen, phosphorous and sulfur atoms are optionally oxidized, and the nitrogen heteroatom is optionally quaternized. Heteroalkyls can be substituted as defined above for alkyl groups. The term “heteroaryl,” as used herein refers to an aromatic group that has at least one heteroatom incorporated within the ring of the aromatic group. Examples of heteroatoms include, but are not limited to, nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur, and phosphorus, where N-oxides, sulfur oxides, and dioxides are permissible heteroatom substitutions. The heteroaryl group can be substituted or unsubstituted. The heteroaryl group can be substituted with one or more groups including, but not limited to, alkyl, cycloalkyl, alkoxy, amino, ether, halide, hydroxy, nitro, silyl, sulfo-oxo, or thiol as described herein. Heteroaryl groups can be monocyclic, or alternatively fused ring systems. Heteroaryl groups include, but are not limited to, furyl, imidazolyl, pyrimidinyl, tetrazolyl, thienyl, pyridinyl, pyrrolyl, N-methylpyrrolyl, quinolinyl, isoquinolinyl, pyrazolyl, triazolyl, thiazolyl, oxazolyl, isoxazolyl, oxadiazolyl, thiadiazolyl, isothiazolyl, pyridazinyl, pyrazinyl, benzofuranyl, benzodioxolyl, benzothiophenyl, indolyl, indazolyl, benzimidazolyl, imidazopyridinyl, pyrazolopyridinyl, and pyrazolopyrimidinyl. Further not limiting examples of heteroaryl groups include, but are not limited to, pyridinyl, pyridazinyl, pyrimidinyl, pyrazinyl, thiophenyl, pyrazolyl, imidazolyl, benzo[d]oxazolyl, benzo[d]thiazolyl, quinolinyl, quinazolinyl, indazolyl, imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazinyl, imidazo[1,2-a]pyrazinyl, benzo[c][1,2,5]thiadiazolyl, benzo[c][1,2,5]oxadiazolyl, and pyrido[2,3-b]pyrazinyl. The term “heterocycle,” as used herein refers to single and multi-cyclic aromatic or non-aromatic ring systems in which at least one of the ring members is other than carbon. Heterocycle includes pyridinde, pyrimidine, furan, thiophene, pyrrole, isoxazole, isothiazole, pyrazole, oxazole, thiazole, imidazole, oxazole, including, 1,2,3-oxadiazole, 1,2,5-oxadiazole and 1,3,4-oxadiazole, thiadiazole, including, 1,2,3-thiadiazole, 1,2,5-thiadiazole, and 1,3,4-thiadiazole, triazole, including, 1,2,3-triazole, 1,3,4-triazole, tetrazole, including 1,2,3,4-tetrazole and 1,2,4,5-tetrazole, pyridine, pyridazine, pyrimidine, pyrazine, triazine, including 1,2,4-triazine and 1,3,5-triazine, tetrazine, including 1,2,4,5-tetrazine, pyrrolidine, piperidine, piperazine, morpholine, azetidine, tetrahydropyran, tetrahydrofuran, dioxane, and the like. The term “bicyclic heterocycle” or “bicyclic heterocyclyl,” as used herein refers to a ring system in which at least one of the ring members is other than carbon. Bicyclic heterocyclyl encompasses ring systems wherein an aromatic ring is fused with another aromatic ring, or wherein an aromatic ring is fused with a non-aromatic ring. Bicyclic heterocyclyl encompasses ring systems wherein a benzene ring is fused to a 5- or a 6-membered ring containing 1, 2 or 3 ring heteroatoms or wherein a pyridine ring is fused to a 5- or a 6-membered ring containing 1, 2 or 3 ring heteroatoms. Bicyclic heterocyclic groups include, but are not limited to, indolyl, indazolyl, pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridinyl, benzofuranyl, quinolinyl, quinoxalinyl, 1,3-benzodioxolyl, 2,3-dihydro-1,4-benzodioxinyl, 3,4-dihydro-2H-chromenyl, 1H-pyrazolo[4,3-c]pyridin-3-yl; 1H-pyrrolo[3,2-b]pyridin-3-yl; and 1H-pyrazolo[3,2-b]pyridin-3-yl. The term “heterocycloalkyl” as used herein refers to an aliphatic, partially unsaturated or fully saturated, 3- to 14-membered ring system, including single rings of 3 to 8 atoms and bi- and tricyclic ring systems. The heterocycloalkyl ring-systems include one to four heteroatoms independently selected from oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfur, wherein a nitrogen and sulfur heteroatom optionally can be oxidized and a nitrogen heteroatom optionally can be substituted. Representative heterocycloalkyl groups include, but are not limited to, pyrrolidinyl, pyrazolinyl, pyrazolidinyl, imidazolinyl, imidazolidinyl, piperidinyl, piperazinyl, oxazolidinyl, isoxazolidinyl, morpholinyl, thiazolidinyl, isothiazolidinyl, and tetrahydrofuryl. The term “hydroxyl” or “hydroxyl” as used herein is represented by the formula —OH. The term “ketone” as used herein is represented by the formula A1C(O)A2, where A1and A2can be, independently, an alkyl, cycloalkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkenyl, alkynyl, cycloalkynyl, aryl, or heteroaryl group as described herein. The term “azide” or “azido” as used herein is represented by the formula —N3. The term “nitro” as used herein is represented by the formula —NO2. The term “nitrile” or “cyano” as used herein is represented by the formula —CN. The term “thiol” as used herein is represented by the formula —S— or —SH. “R1,” “R2,” “R3,” “Rn,” where n is an integer, as used herein can, independently, possess one or more of the groups listed above. For example, if R1is a straight chain alkyl group, one of the hydrogen atoms of the alkyl group can optionally be substituted with a hydroxyl group, an alkoxy group, an alkyl group, a halide, and the like. Depending upon the groups that are selected, a first group can be incorporated within second group or, alternatively, the first group can be pendant (i.e., attached) to the second group. For example, with the phrase “an alkyl group comprising an amino group,” the amino group can be incorporated within the backbone of the alkyl group. Alternatively, the amino group can be attached to the backbone of the alkyl group. The nature of the group(s) that is (are) selected will determine if the first group is embedded or attached to the second group. As described herein, compounds of the invention may contain “optionally substituted” moieties. In general, the term “substituted,” whether preceded by the term “optionally” or not, means that one or more hydrogens of the designated moiety are replaced with a suitable substituent. Unless otherwise indicated, an “optionally substituted” group may have a suitable substituent at each substitutable position of the group, and when more than one position in any given structure may be substituted with more than one substituent selected from a specified group, the substituent may be either the same or different at every position. Combinations of substituents envisioned by this invention are preferably those that result in the formation of stable or chemically feasible compounds. In is also contemplated that, in certain aspects, unless expressly indicated to the contrary, individual substituents can be further optionally substituted (i.e., further substituted or unsubstituted). The term “stable,” as used herein, refers to compounds that are not substantially altered when subjected to conditions to allow for their production, detection, and, in certain aspects, their recovery, purification, and use for one or more of the purposes disclosed herein. Suitable monovalent substituents on a substitutable carbon atom of an “optionally substituted” group is independently halogen; —(CH2)0-4R◯; —(CH2)0-4OR◯; —O(CH2)0-4R◯, —O—(CH2)0-4C(O)OR◯; —(CH2)0-4CH(OR◯)2; —(CH2)0-4SR◯; —(CH2)0-1Ph, which may be substituted with R◯; —(CH2)0-4O(CH2)0-4Ph which may be substituted with R◯; —CH═CHPh, which may be substituted with R◯; —(CH2)0-4O(CH2)0-1-pyridyl which may be substituted with R◯; —NO2; —CN; —N3; —(CH2)0-4N(R◯)2; —(CH2)0-4N(R◯)C(O)R◯; —N(R◯)C(S)R◯); —(CH2)0-4N(R◯)C(O)NR◯2; —N(R◯)C(S)NR◯2; —(CH2)0-4N(R◯)C(O)OR◯; —N(R◯)N(R◯)C(O)R◯; —N(R◯)N(R◯)C(O)NR◯2; —N(R◯)N(R◯)C(O)OR◯; —(CH2)0-4C(O)R◯; —C(S)R◯; —(CH2)0-4C(O)OR◯; —(CH2)0-4C(O)SR◯; —(CH2)0-4C(O)OSiR◯3; —(CH2)0-4OC(O)R◯; —OC(O)(CH2)0-4SR—, SC(S)SR◯; —(CH2)0-4SC(O)R◯; —(CH2)0-4C(O)NR◯2; —C(S)NR◯2; —C(S)SR◯; —SC(S)SR◯, —(CH2)0-4OC(O)NR◯2; —C(O)N(OR◯)R◯; —C(O)C(O)R◯; —C(O)CH2C(O)R◯; —C(NOR◯)R◯; —(CH2)0-4SSR◯; —(CH2)0-4S(O)2R◯; —(CH2)0-4S(O)2OR◯; —(CH2)0-4OS(O)2R◯; —S(O)2NR◯2; —(CH2)0-4S(O)R◯; —N(R◯)S(O)2NR◯2; —N(R◯)S(O)2R◯; —N(OR◯)R◯; —C(NH)NR◯2; —P(O)2R◯; —P(O)R◯2; —OP(O)R◯2; —OP(O)(OR◯)2; SiR◯3; —(C1-4straight or branched)alkylene)O—N(R◯2; or —(C1-4straight or branched alkylene)C(O)O—N(R◯)2, wherein each R◯may be substituted as defined below and is independently hydrogen, C1-6aliphatic, —CH2Ph, —O(CH2)0-1Ph, —CH2-(5-6 membered heteroaryl ring), or a 5-6-membered saturated, partially unsaturated, or aryl ring having 0-4 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, or sulfur, or, notwithstanding the definition above, two independent occurrences of R◯, taken together with their intervening atom(s), form a 3-12-membered saturated, partially unsaturated, or aryl mono- or bicyclic ring having 0-4 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, or sulfur, which may be substituted as defined below. Suitable monovalent substituents on R◯(or the ring formed by taking two independent occurrences of R◯together with their intervening atoms), is independently halogen, —(CH2)0-2R●, -(haloR●), —(CH2)0-2OH, —(CH2)0-2OR●, —(CH2)0-2CH(OR●)2; —O(haloR●), —CN, —N3, —(CH2)0-2C(O)R●, —(CH2)0-2C(O)OH, —(CH2)0-2C(O)OR●, —(CH2)0-2SR●, —(CH2)0-2SH, —(CH2)02NH2, —(CH2)0-2NHR●, —(CH2)0-2NR●2, —NO2, —C(O)SR●, —(C1-4straight or branched alkylene)C(O)OR●, or —SSR● wherein each R● is unsubstituted or where preceded by “halo” is substituted only with one or more halogens, and is independently selected from C1aliphatic, —CH2Ph, —O(CH2)0-1Ph, or a 5-6-membered saturated, partially unsaturated, or aryl ring having 0-4 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, or sulfur. Suitable divalent substituents on a saturated carbon atom of R◯include ═O and ═S. Suitable divalent substituents on a saturated carbon atom of an “optionally substituted” group include the following: ═O, ═S, ═NNR*2, ═NNHC(O)R*, ═NNHC(O)OR*, ═NNHS(O)2R*, ═NR*, ═NOR*, —O(C(R*2))2-3O—, or —S(C(R*2))2-3S—, wherein each independent occurrence of R* is selected from hydrogen, C1-6aliphatic which may be substituted as defined below, or an unsubstituted 5-6-membered saturated, partially unsaturated, or aryl ring having 0-4 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, or sulfur. Suitable divalent substituents that are bound to vicinal substitutable carbons of an “optionally substituted” group include: —O(CR*2)2-3O—, wherein each independent occurrence of R* is selected from hydrogen, C1-6aliphatic which may be substituted as defined below, or an unsubstituted 5-6-membered saturated, partially unsaturated, or aryl ring having 0-4 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, or sulfur. Suitable substituents on the aliphatic group of R* include halogen, —R●, -(haloR●), —OH, —OR●, —O(haloR●), —CN, —C(O)OH, —C(O)OR●, —NH2, —NHR●, —NR●2, or —NO2, wherein each R● is unsubstituted or where preceded by “halo” is substituted only with one or more halogens, and is independently C1-4aliphatic, —CH2Ph, —O(CH2)0-1Ph, or a 5-6-membered saturated, partially unsaturated, or aryl ring having 0-4 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, or sulfur. Suitable substituents on a substitutable nitrogen of an “optionally substituted” group include —R†, —NR″r2, —C(O)R†, —C(O)OR†, —C(O)C(O)R†, —C(O)CH2C(O)R†, —S(O)2R†, —S(O)2NR†2, —C(S)NR†2, —C(NH)NR†2, or —N(R)S(O)2R†; wherein each R† is independently hydrogen, C1-6aliphatic which may be substituted as defined below, unsubstituted —OPh, or an unsubstituted 5-6-membered saturated, partially unsaturated, or aryl ring having 0-4 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, or sulfur, or, notwithstanding the definition above, two independent occurrences of R†, taken together with their intervening atom(s) form an unsubstituted 3-12-membered saturated, partially unsaturated, or aryl mono- or bicyclic ring having 0-4 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, or sulfur. Suitable substituents on the aliphatic group of R† is independently halogen, —R●, -(haloR●), —OH, —OR●, —O(haloR●), —CN, —C(O)OH, —C(O)OR●, —NH2, —NHR●, —NR●2, or —NO2, wherein each R● is unsubstituted or where preceded by “halo” is substituted only with one or more halogens, and is independently C1-4aliphatic, —CH2Ph, —O(CH2)0-1Ph, or a 5-6-membered saturated, partially unsaturated, or aryl ring having 0-4 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, or sulfur. The term “organic residue” defines a carbon containing residue, i.e., a residue comprising at least one carbon atom, and includes but is not limited to the carbon-containing groups, residues, or radicals defined hereinabove. Organic residues can contain various heteroatoms, or be bonded to another molecule through a heteroatom, including oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus, or the like. Examples of organic residues include but are not limited alkyl or substituted alkyls, alkoxy or substituted alkoxy, mono or di-substituted amino, amide groups, etc. Organic residues can preferably comprise 1 to 18 carbon atoms, 1 to 15, carbon atoms, 1 to 12 carbon atoms, 1 to 8 carbon atoms, 1 to 6 carbon atoms, or 1 to 4 carbon atoms. In a further aspect, an organic residue can comprise 2 to 18 carbon atoms, 2 to 15, carbon atoms, 2 to 12 carbon atoms, 2 to 8 carbon atoms, 2 to 4 carbon atoms, or 2 to 4 carbon atoms. A very close synonym of the term “residue” is the term “radical,” which as used in the specification and concluding claims, refers to a fragment, group, or substructure of a molecule described herein, regardless of how the molecule is prepared. For example, a 2,4-thiazolidinedione radical in a particular compound has the structure regardless of whether thiazolidinedione is used to prepare the compound. In some embodiments the radical (for example an alkyl) can be further modified (i.e., substituted alkyl) by having bonded thereto one or more “substituent radicals.” The number of atoms in a given radical is not critical to the present invention unless it is indicated to the contrary elsewhere herein. “Organic radicals,” as the term is defined and used herein, contain one or more carbon atoms. An organic radical can have, for example, 1-26 carbon atoms, 1-18 carbon atoms, 1-12 carbon atoms, 1-8 carbon atoms, 1-6 carbon atoms, or 1-4 carbon atoms. In a further aspect, an organic radical can have 2-26 carbon atoms, 2-18 carbon atoms, 2-12 carbon atoms, 2-8 carbon atoms, 2-6 carbon atoms, or 2-4 carbon atoms. Organic radicals often have hydrogen bound to at least some of the carbon atoms of the organic radical. One example, of an organic radical that comprises no inorganic atoms is a 5, 6, 7, 8-tetrahydro-2-naphthyl radical. In some embodiments, an organic radical can contain 1-10 inorganic heteroatoms bound thereto or therein, including halogens, oxygen, sulfur, nitrogen, phosphorus, and the like. Examples of organic radicals include but are not limited to an alkyl, substituted alkyl, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, mono-substituted amino, di-substituted amino, acyloxy, cyano, carboxy, carboalkoxy, alkylcarboxamide, substituted alkylcarboxamide, dialkylcarboxamide, substituted dialkylcarboxamide, alkylsulfonyl, alkylsulfinyl, thioalkyl, thiohaloalkyl, alkoxy, substituted alkoxy, haloalkyl, haloalkoxy, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, heterocyclic, or substituted heterocyclic radicals, wherein the terms are defined elsewhere herein. A few non-limiting examples of organic radicals that include heteroatoms include alkoxy radicals, trifluoromethoxy radicals, acetoxy radicals, dimethylamino radicals and the like. “Inorganic radicals,” as the term is defined and used herein, contain no carbon atoms and therefore comprise only atoms other than carbon. Inorganic radicals comprise bonded combinations of atoms selected from hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, silicon, phosphorus, sulfur, selenium, and halogens such as fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine, which can be present individually or bonded together in their chemically stable combinations. Inorganic radicals have 10 or fewer, or preferably one to six or one to four inorganic atoms as listed above bonded together. Examples of inorganic radicals include, but not limited to, amino, hydroxy, halogens, nitro, thiol, sulfate, phosphate, and like commonly known inorganic radicals. The inorganic radicals do not have bonded therein the metallic elements of the periodic table (such as the alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, transition metals, lanthanide metals, or actinide metals), although such metal ions can sometimes serve as a pharmaceutically acceptable cation for anionic inorganic radicals such as a sulfate, phosphate, or like anionic inorganic radical. Inorganic radicals do not comprise metalloids elements such as boron, aluminum, gallium, germanium, arsenic, tin, lead, or tellurium, or the noble gas elements, unless otherwise specifically indicated elsewhere herein. Compounds described herein can contain one or more double bonds and, thus, potentially give rise to cis/trans (E/Z) isomers, as well as other conformational isomers. Unless stated to the contrary, the invention includes all such possible isomers, as well as mixtures of such isomers. Unless stated to the contrary, a formula with chemical bonds shown only as solid lines and not as wedges or dashed lines contemplates each possible isomer, e.g., each enantiomer and diastereomer, and a mixture of isomers, such as a racemic or scalemic mixture. Compounds described herein can contain one or more asymmetric centers and, thus, potentially give rise to diastereomers and optical isomers. Unless stated to the contrary, the present invention includes all such possible diastereomers as well as their racemic mixtures, their substantially pure resolved enantiomers, all possible geometric isomers, and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof. Mixtures of stereoisomers, as well as isolated specific stereoisomers, are also included. During the course of the synthetic procedures used to prepare such compounds, or in using racemization or epimerization procedures known to those skilled in the art, the products of such procedures can be a mixture of stereoisomers. Many organic compounds exist in optically active forms having the ability to rotate the plane of plane-polarized light. In describing an optically active compound, the prefixes D and L or R and S are used to denote the absolute configuration of the molecule about its chiral center(s). The prefixes d and 1 or (+) and (−) are employed to designate the sign of rotation of plane-polarized light by the compound, with (−) or meaning that the compound is levorotatory. A compound prefixed with (+) or d is dextrorotatory. For a given chemical structure, these compounds, called stereoisomers, are identical except that they are non-superimposable mirror images of one another. A specific stereoisomer can also be referred to as an enantiomer, and a mixture of such isomers is often called an enantiomeric mixture. A 50:50 mixture of enantiomers is referred to as a racemic mixture. Many of the compounds described herein can have one or more chiral centers and therefore can exist in different enantiomeric forms. If desired, a chiral carbon can be designated with an asterisk (*). When bonds to the chiral carbon are depicted as straight lines in the disclosed formulas, it is understood that both the (R) and (S) configurations of the chiral carbon, and hence both enantiomers and mixtures thereof, are embraced within the formula. As is used in the art, when it is desired to specify the absolute configuration about a chiral carbon, one of the bonds to the chiral carbon can be depicted as a wedge (bonds to atoms above the plane) and the other can be depicted as a series or wedge of short parallel lines is (bonds to atoms below the plane). The Cahn-Ingold-Prelog system can be used to assign the (R) or (S) configuration to a chiral carbon. Compounds described herein comprise atoms in both their natural isotopic abundance and in non-natural abundance. The disclosed compounds can be isotopically-labeled or isotopically-substituted compounds identical to those described, but for the fact that one or more atoms are replaced by an atom having an atomic mass or mass number different from the atomic mass or mass number typically found in nature. Examples of isotopes that can be incorporated into compounds of the invention include isotopes of hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorous, fluorine and chlorine, such as2H,3H,13C,14C,15N,18O,17O,35S,18F and36Cl, respectively. Compounds further comprise prodrugs thereof, and pharmaceutically acceptable salts of said compounds or of said prodrugs which contain the aforementioned isotopes and/or other isotopes of other atoms are within the scope of this invention. Certain isotopically-labeled compounds of the present invention, for example those into which radioactive isotopes such as3H and14C are incorporated, are useful in drug and/or substrate tissue distribution assays. Tritiated, i.e.,3H, and carbon-14, i.e.,14C, isotopes are particularly preferred for their ease of preparation and detectability. Further, substitution with heavier isotopes such as deuterium, i.e.,2H, can afford certain therapeutic advantages resulting from greater metabolic stability, for example increased in vivo half-life or reduced dosage requirements and, hence, may be preferred in some circumstances. Isotopically labeled compounds of the present invention and prodrugs thereof can generally be prepared by carrying out the procedures below, by substituting a readily available isotopically labeled reagent for a non-isotopically labeled reagent. The compounds described in the invention can be present as a solvate. In some cases, the solvent used to prepare the solvate is an aqueous solution, and the solvate is then often referred to as a hydrate. The compounds can be present as a hydrate, which can be obtained, for example, by crystallization from a solvent or from aqueous solution. In this connection, one, two, three or any arbitrary number of solvate or water molecules can combine with the compounds according to the invention to form solvates and hydrates. Unless stated to the contrary, the invention includes all such possible solvates. It is also appreciated that certain compounds described herein can be present as an equilibrium of tautomers. For example, ketones with an α-hydrogen can exist in an equilibrium of the keto form and the enol form. Likewise, amides with an N-hydrogen can exist in an equilibrium of the amide form and the imidic acid form. As another example, pyrazoles can exist in two tautomeric forms, N1-unsubstituted, 3-A3and N1-unsubstituted, 5-A3as shown below. Unless stated to the contrary, the invention includes all such possible tautomers. It is known that chemical substances form solids which are present in different states of order which are termed polymorphic forms or modifications. The different modifications of a polymorphic substance can differ greatly in their physical properties. The compounds according to the invention can be present in different polymorphic forms, with it being possible for particular modifications to be metastable. Unless stated to the contrary, the invention includes all such possible polymorphic forms. In some aspects, a structure of a compound can be represented by a formula: which is understood to be equivalent to a formula: wherein n is typically an integer. That is, Rnis understood to represent five independent substituents, Rn(a), Rn(b), Rn(c), Rn(d), Rn(e). By “independent substituents,” it is meant that each R substituent can be independently defined. For example, if in one instance Rn(a)is halogen, then Rn(b)is not necessarily halogen in that instance. Certain materials, compounds, compositions, and components disclosed herein can be obtained commercially or readily synthesized using techniques generally known to those of skill in the art. For example, the starting materials and reagents used in preparing the disclosed compounds and compositions are either available from commercial suppliers such as Aldrich Chemical Co., (Milwaukee, Wis.), Acros Organics (Morris Plains, N.J.), Fisher Scientific (Pittsburgh, Pa.), or Sigma (St. Louis, Mo.) or are prepared by methods known to those skilled in the art following procedures set forth in references such as Fieser and Fieser's Reagents for Organic Synthesis, Volumes 1-17 (John Wiley and Sons, 1991); Rodd's Chemistry of Carbon Compounds, Volumes 1-5 and Supplemental Volumes (Elsevier Science Publishers, 1989); Organic Reactions, Volumes 1-40 (John Wiley and Sons, 1991); March's Advanced Organic Chemistry, (John Wiley and Sons, 4th Edition); and Larock's Comprehensive Organic Transformations (VCH Publishers Inc., 1989). Unless otherwise expressly stated, it is in no way intended that any method set forth herein be construed as requiring that its steps be performed in a specific order. Accordingly, where a method claim does not actually recite an order to be followed by its steps or it is not otherwise specifically stated in the claims or descriptions that the steps are to be limited to a specific order, it is no way intended that an order be inferred, in any respect. This holds for any possible non-express basis for interpretation, including: matters of logic with respect to arrangement of steps or operational flow; plain meaning derived from grammatical organization or punctuation; and the number or type of embodiments described in the specification. Disclosed are the components to be used to prepare the compositions of the invention as well as the compositions themselves to be used within the methods disclosed herein. These and other materials are disclosed herein, and it is understood that when combinations, subsets, interactions, groups, etc. of these materials are disclosed that while specific reference of each various individual and collective combinations and permutation of these compounds cannot be explicitly disclosed, each is specifically contemplated and described herein. For example, if a particular compound is disclosed and discussed and a number of modifications that can be made to a number of molecules including the compounds are discussed, specifically contemplated is each and every combination and permutation of the compound and the modifications that are possible unless specifically indicated to the contrary. Thus, if a class of molecules A, B, and C are disclosed as well as a class of molecules D, E, and F and an example of a combination molecule, A-D is disclosed, then even if each is not individually recited each is individually and collectively contemplated meaning combinations, A-E, A-F, B-D, B-E, B—F, C-D, C-E, and C—F are considered disclosed. Likewise, any subset or combination of these is also disclosed. Thus, for example, the sub-group of A-E, B—F, and C-E would be considered disclosed. This concept applies to all aspects of this application including, but not limited to, steps in methods of making and using the compositions of the invention. Thus, if there are a variety of additional steps that can be performed it is understood that each of these additional steps can be performed with any specific embodiment or combination of embodiments of the methods of the invention. It is understood that the compositions disclosed herein have certain functions. Disclosed herein are certain structural requirements for performing the disclosed functions, and it is understood that there are a variety of structures that can perform the same function that are related to the disclosed structures, and that these structures will typically achieve the same result. In one aspect, disclosed are degradable polymers comprising: (a) a biodegradable polymer backbone; (b) at least one nitric oxide linker moiety pendant from the polymer backbone; and (c) at least one nitric oxide molecule covalently bonded to the nitric oxide linker moiety. Without wishing to be bound by theory, a degradable polymer refers to a polymer that can be broken in a biological or non-biological environment in response to a stimulus. Examples of stimuli include, but are not limited to, heat, light, copper ions, and free thiols. In one aspect, disclosed are polymers comprising: (a) a biodegradable polymer backbone; and (b) at least one nitric oxide linker moiety pendant from the polymer backbone. In a further aspect, the degradable polymer is hyperbranched. In a still further aspect, the polymer is hyperbranched. Without wishing to be bound by theory, a hyperbranched polymer refers to a polymer having a densely branched structure that is imperfectly branched or irregular. In various aspects, a hyperbranched polymer has a higher functional group density per molecular unit than a straight-chain polymer or a conventional branched polymer. In various further aspects, a hyperbranched polymer that has been elaborated to several generations has an internal space. These characteristics make hyperbranched polymers attractive for a variety of applications including, but not limited to, surfactants, gelling agents, drug delivery systems, and polymeric absorbents. 1. Biodegradable Polymer Backbones In one aspect, disclosed are degradable polymers comprising a biodegradable polymer backbone. In a further aspect, the polymer backbone is a polyester backbone. In a further aspect, the polymer backbone comprises at least one polyester residue. In a further aspect, the polymer backbone comprises at least one residue having a structure represented by a formula selected from: wherein each occurrence of n is independently selected from 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4; wherein each of R1aand R1bis independently selected from —OH, C1-C4 alkyl, C1-C4 hydroxyalkyl, and —(CH2)nOC(O)L, provided that at least one of R1aand R1bis —(CH2)nOC(O)L; and wherein L is the nitric oxide linker moiety. In a further aspect, the polymer backbone comprises at least one residue having a structure represented by a formula selected from: wherein each occurrence of n is independently selected from 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4; wherein R1ais selected from —OH, C1-C4 alkyl, C1-C4 hydroxyalkyl, and —(CH2)nOC(O)L; and wherein L is the nitric oxide linker moiety. In a further aspect, the polymer backbone comprises at least one residue having a structure represented by a formula selected from: wherein R1ais selected from —OH, C1-C4 alkyl, C1-C4 hydroxyalkyl, and —(CH2)nOC(O)L; and wherein L is the nitric oxide linker moiety. In a further aspect, the polymer backbone comprises at least one residue having a structure: wherein L is the nitric oxide linker moiety. In a further aspect, the at least one residue is present as a repeating unit. In a further aspect, each occurrence of n is independently selected from 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4. In a still further aspect, each occurrence of n is independently selected from 0, 1, 2, or 3. In yet a further aspect, each occurrence of n is independently selected from 0, 1, or 2. In an even further aspect, each occurrence of n is independently selected from 0 or 1. In a still further aspect, each occurrence of n is 4. In yet a further aspect, each occurrence of n is 3. In an even further aspect, each occurrence of n is 2. In a still further aspect, each occurrence of n is 1. In an even further aspect, each occurrence of n is 0. In a further aspect, L is the nitric oxide linker moiety. a. R1Aand R1BGroups In one aspect, each of R1aand R1bis independently selected from —OH, C1-C4 alkyl, C1-C4 hydroxyalkyl, and —(CH2)nOC(O)L, provided that at least one of R1aand R1bis —(CH2)nOC(O)L. In a further aspect, R1ais —(CH2)nOC(O)Land R1bis selected from —OH, C1-C4 alkyl, C1-C4 hydroxyalkyl, and —(CH2)nOC(O)L. In a still further aspect, R1ais —(CH2)nOC(O)L and R1bis selected from —OH, methyl, ethyl, n-propyl, i-propyl, —CH2OH, —CH2CH2OH, —CH2CH2CH2OH, —CH(CH3)(CH2OH), and —(CH2)nOC(O)L. In yet a further aspect, R1ais —(CH2)nOC(O)Land R1bis selected from —OH, methyl, ethyl, —CH2OH, —CH2CH2OH, and —(CH2)nOC(O)L. In an even further aspect, R1ais —(CH2)nOC(O)L and R1bis selected from —OH, methyl, —CH2OH, and —(CH2)nOC(O)L. In a further aspect, R1ais —(CH2)nOC(O)Land R1bis selected from —OH, C1-C4 alkyl, and C1-C4 hydroxyalkyl. In a still further aspect, R1ais —(CH2)nOC(O)L and R1bis selected from —OH, methyl, ethyl, n-propyl, i-propyl, —CH2OH, —CH2CH2OH, —CH2CH2CH2OH, and —CH(CH3)(CH2OH). In yet a further aspect, R1ais —(CH2)nOC(O)L and R1bis selected from —OH, methyl, ethyl, —CH2OH, and —CH2CH2OH. In an even further aspect, R1ais —(CH2)nOC(O)L and R1bis selected from —OH, methyl, and —CH2OH. In a still further aspect, R1ais —(CH2)nOC(O)L and R1bis —OH. In yet a further aspect, R1ais —(CH2)nOC(O)L and R1bis methyl. In an even further aspect, R1ais —(CH2)nOC(O)L and R1bis —CH2OH. In a further aspect, each of R1aand R1bis —(CH2)nOC(O)L. 2. Nitric Oxide Linker Moieties In one aspect, disclosed are degradable polymers comprising at least one nitric oxide linker moiety pendant from the polymer backbone. In a further aspect, the nitric oxide linker moiety comprises a dithiol. In a still further aspect, the nitric oxide linker moiety comprises a diamine. In yet a further aspect, the nitric oxide linker moiety comprises a single amine such as, for example, hexyl amine. In a further aspect, the nitric oxide linker moiety is present in an amount of no more than about 2.0 μmol/mg. In a still further aspect, the nitric oxide linker moiety is present in an amount of less than about 2.0 μmol/mg. In yet a further aspect, the nitric oxide linker moiety is present in an amount of less than about 1.75 μmol/mg. In an even further aspect, the nitric oxide linker moiety is present in an amount of less than about 1.5 μmol/mg. In a still further aspect, the nitric oxide linker moiety is present in an amount of less than about 1.25 μmol/mg. In yet a further aspect, the nitric oxide linker moiety is present in an amount of less than about 1.0 μmol/mg. In an even further aspect, the nitric oxide linker moiety is present in an amount of about 2.0 μmol/mg. In a further aspect, the nitric oxide linker moiety is present in an amount of from about 0.1 μmol/mg to about 2.0 μmol/mg. In a still further aspect, the nitric oxide linker moiety is present in an amount of from about 0.5 μmol/mg to about 2.0 μmol/mg. In yet a further aspect, the nitric oxide linker moiety is present in an amount of from about 1.0 μmol/mg to about 2.0 μmol/mg. In an even further aspect, the nitric oxide linker moiety is present in an amount of from about 1.5 μmol/mg to about 2.0 μmol/mg. In a still further aspect, the nitric oxide linker moiety is present in an amount of from about 0.1 μmol/mg to about 1.5 μmol/mg. In yet a further aspect, the nitric oxide linker moiety is present in an amount of from about 0.1 μmol/mg to about 1.0 μmol/mg. In an even further aspect, the nitric oxide linker moiety is present in an amount of from about 0.1 μmol/mg to about 0.5 μmol/mg. In a further aspect, the nitric oxide linker moiety has a structure represented by a formula: wherein each of m, o, and p is independently selected from 1, 2, 3, and 4; wherein each of Q1and Q2is independently selected from S and NR4; wherein each occurrence of R4, when present, is independently selected from hydrogen, C1-C4 alkyl, and a protecting group; and wherein each occurrence of R2a, R2b, R2c, and R2dis independently selected from hydrogen and C1-C4 alkyl; wherein each occurrence of R3aand R3bis independently selected from hydrogen, —OR5, and C1-C4 alkyl; and wherein R5, when present, is selected from hydrogen, C1-C4 alkyl, and an alcohol protecting group. In a further aspect, the nitric oxide linker moiety has a structure represented by a formula: In a further aspect, the nitric oxide linker moiety has a structure represented by a formula: In a further aspect, the nitric oxide linker moiety has a structure represented by a formula: In a further aspect, the nitric oxide linker moiety has a structure selected from: In a further aspect, the nitric oxide linker moiety has a structure selected from: In a further aspect, the nitric oxide linker moiety has a structure represented by a formula: wherein q is selected from 1, 2, 3, and 4; wherein each of Q1and Q2is independently selected]from S and NR4; wherein each occurrence of R4, when present, is independently selected from hydrogen, C1-C4 alkyl, and a protecting group; and wherein each occurrence of R6a, R6b, R6c, and R6dis independently selected from hydrogen and C1-C4 alkyl. In a further aspect, the nitric oxide linker moiety has a structure represented by a formula: In a further aspect, the nitric oxide linker moiety has a structure represented by a formula: In a further aspect, the nitric oxide linker moiety has a structure represented by a formula: In a further aspect, the nitric oxide linker moiety has a structure represented by a formula: In a further aspect, the nitric oxide linker moiety has a structure represented by a formula: In a further aspect, the nitric oxide linker moiety has a structure represented by a formula: wherein each of r and t is independently selected from 0 and 1; wherein s is selected from 1, 2, and 3; wherein each of Q1and Q2is independently selected from S and NR4; wherein each occurrence of R4, when present, is independently selected from hydrogen, C1-C4 alkyl, and a protecting group; wherein each occurrence of R7a, R7b, R7c, and R7dis independently selected from hydrogen and C1-C4 alkyl; and wherein each occurrence of Ar1is independently selected from aryl, five-membered heteroaryl, and six-membered heteroaryl and is substituted with 0-4 non-hydrogen groups independently selected from halogen, —OH, —CN, C1-C4 alkyl, C1-C4 alkoxy, and C1-C4 haloalkyl. In a further aspect, the nitric oxide linker moiety has a structure represented by a formula: In a further aspect, the nitric oxide linker moiety has a structure represented by a formula: In a further aspect, the nitric oxide linker moiety has a structure represented by a formula: In a further aspect, the nitric oxide linker moiety has a structure represented by a formula: In a further aspect, the nitric oxide linker moiety has a structure represented by a formula: In a further aspect, the nitric oxide linker moiety has a structure represented by a formula: In a further aspect, the nitric oxide linker moiety has a structure represented by a formula: In a further aspect, the nitric oxide linker moiety has a structure represented by a formula: In a further aspect, the nitric oxide linker moiety has a structure selected from: In a further aspect, the nitric oxide linker moiety has a structure selected from: In a further aspect, the nitric oxide linker moiety has a structure represented by a formula: wherein each of m, o, and p is independently selected from 1, 2, 3, and 4; wherein each of Q1and Q2is independently selected from S and NR4; wherein each occurrence of R4, when present, is independently selected from hydrogen, C1-C4 alkyl, and a protecting group; wherein each occurrence of R2a, R2b, R2c, and R2dis independently selected from hydrogen and C1-C4 alkyl; wherein each occurrence of R3aand R3bis independently selected from hydrogen, —OR5, and C1-C4 alkyl; and wherein R5is selected from hydrogen, C1-C4 alkyl, and an alcohol protecting group. In a further aspect, the nitric oxide linker moiety has a structure represented by a formula: In a further aspect, the nitric oxide linker moiety has a structure represented by a formula: In a further aspect, the nitric oxide linker moiety has a structure represented by a formula: In a further aspect, the nitric oxide linker moiety has a structure represented by a formula: In a further aspect, the nitric oxide linker moiety has a structure selected from: In a further aspect, the nitric oxide linker moiety has a structure selected from: In a further aspect, the nitric oxide linker moiety has a structure represented by a formula: wherein q is selected from 1, 2, 3, and 4; wherein each of Q1and Q2is independently selected from S and NR4; wherein each occurrence of R4, when present, is independently selected from hydrogen, C1-C4 alkyl, and a protecting group; and wherein each occurrence of R6a, R6b, R6c, and R6dis independently selected from hydrogen and C1-C4 alkyl. In a further aspect, the nitric oxide linker moiety has a structure represented by a formula: In a further aspect, the nitric oxide linker moiety has a structure represented by a formula: In a further aspect, the nitric oxide linker moiety has a structure represented by a formula: In a further aspect, the nitric oxide linker moiety has a structure represented by a formula: In a further aspect, the nitric oxide linker moiety has a structure represented by a formula: In a further aspect, the nitric oxide linker moiety has a structure represented by a formula: wherein each of r and t is independently selected from 0 and 1; wherein s is selected from 1, 2, and 3; wherein each of Q1and Q2is independently selected from S and NR4; wherein each occurrence of R4, when present, is independently selected from hydrogen, C1-C4 alkyl, and a protecting group; wherein each occurrence of R7a, R7b, R7c, and R7dis independently selected from hydrogen and C1-C4 alkyl; and wherein each occurrence of Ar1is independently selected from aryl, five-membered heteroaryl, and six-membered heteroaryl and is substituted with 0-4 non-hydrogen groups independently selected from halogen, —OH, —CN, C1-C4 alkyl, C1-C4 alkoxy, and C1-C4 haloalkyl. In a further aspect, the nitric oxide linker moiety has a structure represented by a formula: In a further aspect, the nitric oxide linker moiety has a structure represented by a formula: In a further aspect, the nitric oxide linker moiety has a structure represented by a formula: In a further aspect, the nitric oxide linker moiety has a structure represented by a formula: In a further aspect, the nitric oxide linker moiety has a structure represented by a formula: In a further aspect, the nitric oxide linker moiety has a structure represented by a formula: In a further aspect, the nitric oxide linker moiety has a structure represented by a formula: In a further aspect, the nitric oxide linker moiety has a structure represented by a formula: In a further aspect, the nitric oxide linker moiety has a structure represented by a formula: In a further aspect, the nitric oxide linker moiety has a structure represented by a formula: In a further aspect, the nitric oxide linker moiety has a structure selected from: In a further aspect, the nitric oxide linker moiety has a structure selected from: In one aspect, each of m, o, and p is independently selected from 1, 2, 3, and 4. In a further aspect, each of m, o, and p is independently selected from 1, 2, and 3. In a still further aspect, each of m, o, and p is independently selected from 1 and 2. In yet a further aspect, each of m, o, and p is 4. In an even further aspect, each of m, o, and p is 3. In a still further aspect, each of m, o, and p is 2. In yet a further aspect, each of m, o, and p is 1. In one aspect, q is selected from 1, 2, 3, and 4. In a further aspect, q is selected from 1, 2, and 3. In a still further aspect, q is selected from 1 and 2. In yet a further aspect, q is 4. In an even further aspect, q is 3. In a still further aspect, q is 2. In yet a further aspect, q is 1. In one aspect, each of r and t is independently selected from 0 and 1. In a still further aspect, each of r and t is 1. In yet a further aspect, each of r and t is 0. In an even further aspect, r is 0 and t is 1. In a still further aspect, r is 1 and t is 0. In one aspect, s is selected from 1, 2, and 3. In a still further aspect, s is selected from 1 and 2. In yet a further aspect, s is 3. In an even further aspect, s is 2. In a still further aspect, s is 1. a. Q1and Q2Groups In one aspect, each of Q1and Q2is independently selected from S and NR4. In a further aspect, each of Q1and Q2is S. In a still further aspect, each of Q1and Q2is NR4. In yet a further aspect, Q1is S and Q2is NR4. In an even further aspect, Q1is NR4and Q2is S. b. R2a, R2b, R2c, and R2dGroups In one aspect, each occurrence of R2a, R2b, R2c, and R2dis independently selected from hydrogen and C1-C4 alkyl. In a further aspect, each occurrence of R2a, R2b, R2c, and R2dis hydrogen. In a further aspect, each occurrence of R2a, R2b, R2c, and R2dis independently selected from hydrogen, methyl, ethyl, n-propyl, i-propyl, n-butyl, i-butyl, s-butyl, and t-butyl. In a still further aspect, each occurrence of R2a, R2b, R2c, and R2dis independently selected from hydrogen, methyl, ethyl, n-propyl, and i-propyl. In yet a further aspect, each occurrence of R2a, R2b, R2c, and R2dis independently selected from hydrogen, methyl, and ethyl. In an even further aspect, each occurrence of R2a, R2b, R2c, and R2dis independently selected from hydrogen and ethyl. In a still further aspect, each occurrence of R2a, R2b, R2c, and R2dis independently selected from hydrogen and methyl. c. R3aand R3bGroups In one aspect, each occurrence of R3aand R3bis independently selected from hydrogen, —OR5, and C1-C4 alkyl. In a further aspect, each occurrence of R3aand R3bis hydrogen. In a further aspect, each occurrence of R3aand R3bis independently selected from hydrogen, —OR5, methyl, ethyl, n-propyl, i-propyl, n-butyl, i-butyl, s-butyl, and t-butyl. In a still further aspect, each occurrence of R3aand R3bis independently selected from hydrogen, —OR5, methyl, ethyl, n-propyl, and i-propyl. In yet a further aspect, each occurrence of R3aand R3bis independently selected from hydrogen, —OR5, methyl, and ethyl. In an even further aspect, each occurrence of R3aand R3bis independently selected from hydrogen, —OR5, and ethyl. In a still further aspect, each occurrence of R3aand R3bis independently selected from hydrogen, —OR5, and methyl. In a further aspect, each occurrence of R3aand R3bis independently selected from hydrogen, methyl, ethyl, n-propyl, i-propyl, n-butyl, i-butyl, s-butyl, and t-butyl. In a still further aspect, each occurrence of R3aand R3bis independently selected from hydrogen, methyl, ethyl, n-propyl, and i-propyl. In yet a further aspect, each occurrence of R3aand R3bis independently selected from hydrogen, methyl, and ethyl. In an even further aspect, each occurrence of R3aand R3bis independently selected from hydrogen and ethyl. In a still further aspect, each occurrence of R3aand R3bis independently selected from hydrogen and methyl. d. R4Groups In one aspect, each occurrence of R4, when present, is independently selected from hydrogen, C1-C4 alkyl, and a protecting group. Examples of protecting groups include, but are not limited to, carbobenyloxy, p-methoxybenzyl carbonyl, t-butyloxycarbonyl, 9-fluorenylmethyloxycarbonyl, acetyl, benzoyl, benzyl, a carbamate, p-methoxybenzyl, 3,4-dimethoxybenzyl, p-methoxyphenyl, tosyl, trichloromethyl chloroformate, nosyl, and 2-nitrophenylsulphenyl. Thus, in a further aspect, each occurrence of R4, when present, is independently selected from hydrogen and a protecting group. In a still further aspect, each occurrence of R4, when present, is a protecting group. In yet a further aspect, each occurrence of R4, when present, is hydrogen. In a further aspect, each occurrence of R4, when present, is independently selected from hydrogen, methyl, ethyl, n-propyl, i-propyl, n-butyl, i-butyl, s-butyl, and t-butyl. In a still further aspect, each occurrence of R4, when present, is independently selected from hydrogen, methyl, ethyl, n-propyl, and i-propyl. In yet a further aspect, each occurrence of R4, when present, is independently selected from hydrogen, methyl, and ethyl. In an even further aspect, each occurrence of R4, when present, is independently selected from hydrogen and ethyl. In a still further aspect, each occurrence of R4, when present, is independently selected from hydrogen and methyl. e. R5Groups In one aspect, R5, when present, is selected from hydrogen, C1-C4 alkyl, and an alcohol protecting group. Examples of alcohol protecting groups include, but are not limited to, acetyl, benzoyl, benzyl, β-methoxyethoxymethyl ether, dimethoxytrityl, methoxymethyl ether, methoxytrityl [(4-methoxyphenyl)diphenylmethyl], p-methyoxybenzyl ether, methylthiomethyl ether, pivaloyl, tetrahydropyranyl, tetrahydrofuran, trityl, trimethylsilyl, t-butyldimethylsilyl, tri-iso-propylsilyloxymethyl, triisopropylsilyl, methyl ether, and ethoxyethyl ether. Thus, in a further aspect, each occurrence of R5, when present, is independently selected from hydrogen and an alcohol protecting group. In a still further aspect, each occurrence of R5, when present, is an alcohol protecting group. In yet a further aspect, each occurrence of R5, when present, is hydrogen. In a further aspect, each occurrence of R5, when present, is independently selected from hydrogen, methyl, ethyl, n-propyl, i-propyl, n-butyl, i-butyl, s-butyl, and t-butyl. In a still further aspect, each occurrence of R5, when present, is independently selected from hydrogen, methyl, ethyl, n-propyl, and i-propyl. In yet a further aspect, each occurrence of R5, when present, is independently selected from hydrogen, methyl, and ethyl. In an even further aspect, each occurrence of R5, when present, is independently selected from hydrogen and ethyl. In a still further aspect, each occurrence of R5, when present, is independently selected from hydrogen and methyl. f. R6a, R6b, R6c, and R6dGroups In one aspect, each occurrence of R6a, R6b, R6c, and R6dis independently selected from hydrogen and C1-C4 alkyl. In a further aspect, each occurrence of R6a, R6b, R6c, and R6dis hydrogen. In a further aspect, each occurrence of R6a, R6b, R6c, and R6dis independently selected from hydrogen, methyl, ethyl, n-propyl, i-propyl, n-butyl, i-butyl, s-butyl, and t-butyl. In a still further aspect, each occurrence of R6a, R6b, R6c, and R6dis independently selected from hydrogen, methyl, ethyl, n-propyl, and i-propyl. In yet a further aspect, each occurrence of R6a, R6b, R6c, and R6dis independently selected from hydrogen, methyl, and ethyl. In an even further aspect, each occurrence of R6a, R6b, R6c, and R6dis independently selected from hydrogen and ethyl. In a still further aspect, each occurrence of R6a, R6b, R6c, and R6dis independently selected from hydrogen and methyl. g. R7a, R7b, R7c, and R7dGroups In one aspect, each occurrence of R7a, R7b, R7c, and R7dis independently selected from hydrogen and C1-C4 alkyl. In a further aspect, each occurrence of R7a, R7b, R7c, and R7dis hydrogen. In a further aspect, each occurrence of R7a, R7b, R7c, and R7dis independently selected from hydrogen, methyl, ethyl, n-propyl, i-propyl, n-butyl, i-butyl, s-butyl, and t-butyl. In a still further aspect, each occurrence of R7a, R7b, R7c, and R7dis independently selected from hydrogen, methyl, ethyl, n-propyl, and i-propyl. In yet a further aspect, each occurrence of R7a, R7b, R7c, and R7dis independently selected from hydrogen, methyl, and ethyl. In an even further aspect, each occurrence of R7a, R7b, R7c, and R7dis independently selected from hydrogen and ethyl. In a still further aspect, each occurrence of R7a, R7b, R7c, and R7dis independently selected from hydrogen and methyl. h. Ar1Groups In one aspect, each occurrence of Ar1is independently selected from aryl, five-membered heteroaryl, and six-membered heteroaryl and is substituted with 0-4 non-hydrogen groups independently selected from halogen, —OH, —CN, C1-C4 alkyl, C1-C4 alkoxy, and C1-C4 haloalkyl. In a further aspect, each occurrence of Ar1is independently selected from aryl, five-membered heteroaryl, and six-membered heteroaryl and is substituted with 0-3 non-hydrogen groups independently selected from halogen, —OH, —CN, C1-C4 alkyl, C1-C4 alkoxy, and C1-C4 haloalkyl. In a still further aspect, each occurrence of Ar1is independently selected from aryl, five-membered heteroaryl, and six-membered heteroaryl and is substituted with 0-2 non-hydrogen groups independently selected from halogen, —OH, —CN, C1-C4 alkyl, C1-C4 alkoxy, and C1-C4 haloalkyl. In yet a further aspect, each occurrence of Ar1is independently selected from aryl, five-membered heteroaryl, and six-membered heteroaryl and is substituted with 0-1 non-hydrogen groups selected from halogen, —OH, —CN, C1-C4 alkyl, C1-C4 alkoxy, and C1-C4 haloalkyl. In an even further aspect, each occurrence of Ar1is independently selected from aryl, five-membered heteroaryl, and six-membered heteroaryl and is substituted with a non-hydrogen group selected from halogen, —OH, —CN, C1-C4 alkyl, C1-C4 alkoxy, and C1-C4 haloalkyl. In a still further aspect, each occurrence of Ar1is independently selected from aryl, five-membered heteroaryl, and six-membered heteroaryl and is unsubstituted. In a further aspect, each occurrence of Ar1is aryl substituted with 0-4 non-hydrogen groups independently selected from halogen, —OH, —CN, C1-C4 alkyl, C1-C4 alkoxy, and C1-C4 haloalkyl. In a still further aspect, each occurrence of Ar1is aryl substituted with 0-3 non-hydrogen groups independently selected from halogen, —OH, —CN, C1-C4 alkyl, C1-C4 alkoxy, and C1-C4 haloalkyl. In yet a further aspect, each occurrence of Ar1is aryl substituted with 0-2 non-hydrogen groups independently selected from halogen, —OH, —CN, C1-C4 alkyl, C1-C4 alkoxy, and C1-C4 haloalkyl. In an even further aspect, each occurrence of Ar1is aryl substituted with 0-1 non-hydrogen groups selected from halogen, —OH, —CN, C1-C4 alkyl, C1-C4 alkoxy, and C1-C4 haloalkyl. In a still further aspect, each occurrence of Ar1is aryl substituted with a non-hydrogen group selected from halogen, —OH, —CN, C1-C4 alkyl, C1-C4 alkoxy, and C1-C4 haloalkyl. In yet a further aspect, each occurrence of Ar1is unsubstituted aryl. In a further aspect, each occurrence of Ar1is phenyl substituted with 0-4 non-hydrogen groups independently selected from halogen, —OH, —CN, C1-C4 alkyl, C1-C4 alkoxy, and C1-C4 haloalkyl. In a still further aspect, each occurrence of Ar1is phenyl substituted with 0-3 non-hydrogen groups independently selected from halogen, —OH, —CN, C1-C4 alkyl, C1-C4 alkoxy, and C1-C4 haloalkyl. In yet a further aspect, each occurrence of Ar1is phenyl substituted with 0-2 non-hydrogen groups independently selected from halogen, —OH, —CN, C1-C4 alkyl, C1-C4 alkoxy, and C1-C4 haloalkyl. In an even further aspect, each occurrence of Ar1is phenyl substituted with 0-1 non-hydrogen groups selected from halogen, —OH, —CN, C1-C4 alkyl, C1-C4 alkoxy, and C1-C4 haloalkyl. In a still further aspect, each occurrence of Ar1is phenyl substituted with a non-hydrogen group selected from halogen, —OH, —CN, C1-C4 alkyl, C1-C4 alkoxy, and C1-C4 haloalkyl. In yet a further aspect, each occurrence of Ar1is unsubstituted phenyl. In a further aspect, each occurrence of Ar1is independently selected from five-membered heteroaryl and six-membered heteroaryl and is substituted with 0-4 non-hydrogen groups independently selected from halogen, —OH, —CN, C1-C4 alkyl, C1-C4 alkoxy, and C1-C4 haloalkyl. In a still further aspect, each occurrence of Ar1is independently selected from five-membered heteroaryl and six-membered heteroaryl and is substituted with 0-3 non-hydrogen groups independently selected from halogen, —OH, —CN, C1-C4 alkyl, C1-C4 alkoxy, and C1-C4 haloalkyl. In yet a further aspect, each occurrence of Ar1is independently selected from five-membered heteroaryl and six-membered heteroaryl and is substituted with 0-2 non-hydrogen groups independently selected from halogen, —OH, —CN, C1-C4 alkyl, C1-C4 alkoxy, and C1-C4 haloalkyl. In an even further aspect, each occurrence of Ar1is independently selected from five-membered heteroaryl and six-membered heteroaryl and is substituted with 0-1 non-hydrogen groups selected from halogen, —OH, —CN, C1-C4 alkyl, C1-C4 alkoxy, and C1-C4 haloalkyl. In a still further aspect, each occurrence of Ar1is independently selected from five-membered heteroaryl and six-membered heteroaryl and is substituted with a non-hydrogen group selected from halogen, —OH, —CN, C1-C4 alkyl, C1-C4 alkoxy, and C1-C4 haloalkyl. In yet a further aspect, each occurrence of Ar1is independently selected from five-membered heteroaryl and six-membered heteroaryl and is unsubstituted. In a further aspect, each occurrence of Ar1is five-membered heteroaryl substituted with 0-4 non-hydrogen groups independently selected from halogen, —OH, —CN, C1-C4 alkyl, C1-C4 alkoxy, and C1-C4 haloalkyl. In a still further aspect, each occurrence of Ar1is five-membered heteroaryl substituted with 0-3 non-hydrogen groups independently selected from halogen, —OH, —CN, C1-C4 alkyl, C1-C4 alkoxy, and C1-C4 haloalkyl. In yet a further aspect, each occurrence of Ar1is five-membered heteroaryl substituted with 0-2 non-hydrogen groups independently selected from halogen, —OH, —CN, C1-C4 alkyl, C1-C4 alkoxy, and C1-C4 haloalkyl. In an even further aspect, each occurrence of Ar1is five-membered heteroaryl substituted with 0-1 non-hydrogen groups selected from halogen, —OH, —CN, C1-C4 alkyl, C1-C4 alkoxy, and C1-C4 haloalkyl. In a still further aspect, each occurrence of Ar1is five-membered heteroaryl substituted with a non-hydrogen group selected from halogen, —OH, —CN, C1-C4 alkyl, C1-C4 alkoxy, and C1-C4 haloalkyl. In yet a further aspect, each occurrence of Ar1is unsubstituted five-membered heteroaryl. In a further aspect, each occurrence of Ar1is six-membered heteroaryl substituted with 0-4 non-hydrogen groups independently selected from halogen, —OH, —CN, C1-C4 alkyl, C1-C4 alkoxy, and C1-C4 haloalkyl. In a still further aspect, each occurrence of Ar1is six-membered heteroaryl substituted with 0-3 non-hydrogen groups independently selected from halogen, —OH, —CN, C1-C4 alkyl, C1-C4 alkoxy, and C1-C4 haloalkyl. In yet a further aspect, each occurrence of Ar1is six-membered heteroaryl substituted with 0-2 non-hydrogen groups independently selected from halogen, —OH, —CN, C1-C4 alkyl, C1-C4 alkoxy, and C1-C4 haloalkyl. In an even further aspect, each occurrence of Ar1is six-membered heteroaryl substituted with 0-1 non-hydrogen groups selected from halogen, —OH, —CN, C1-C4 alkyl, C1-C4 alkoxy, and C1-C4 haloalkyl. In a still further aspect, each occurrence of Ar1is six-membered heteroaryl substituted with a non-hydrogen group selected from halogen, —OH, —CN, C1-C4 alkyl, C1-C4 alkoxy, and C1-C4 haloalkyl. In yet a further aspect, each occurrence of Ar1is unsubstituted six-membered heteroaryl. 3. Nitric Oxide Molecules In one aspect, disclosed are degradable polymers comprising at least one nitric oxide molecule covalently bonded to the nitric oxide linker moiety. In a further aspect, the nitric oxide linker moiety and nitric oxide together comprise a group selected from a diazeniumdiolate, a nitrosothiol, a nitrosamine, a hydroxyl nitrosamine, a hydroxyl amine, and a hydroxyurea. In a still further aspect, the nitric oxide linker moiety and nitric oxide together comprise a nitrosothiol. In a further aspect, the nitric oxide linker moiety and nitric oxide together has a structure represented by a formula selected from: wherein each of m, o, and p is independently selected from 1, 2, 3, and 4; wherein each of Q1and Q2is independently selected from S and NR4; wherein each occurrence of R4, when present, is independently selected from hydrogen, C1-C4 alkyl, and a protecting group; and wherein each occurrence of R2a, R2b, R2c, and R2dis independently selected from hydrogen and C1-C4 alkyl; wherein each occurrence of R3aand R3bis independently selected from hydrogen, —OR5, and C1-C4 alkyl; wherein R5, when present, is selected from hydrogen, C1-C4 alkyl, and an alcohol protecting group; and wherein X is an organic soluble cation. Thus, without wishing to be bound by theory X can be, for example, a tetra alkyl ammonium cation. In a further aspect, the nitric oxide linker moiety and nitric oxide together has a structure represented by a formula: In a further aspect, the nitric oxide linker moiety and nitric oxide together has a structure represented by a formula: In a further aspect, the nitric oxide linker moiety and nitric oxide together has a structure represented by a formula: In a further aspect, the nitric oxide linker moiety and nitric oxide together has a structure represented by a formula: In a further aspect, the nitric oxide linker moiety and nitric oxide together has a structure selected from: In a further aspect, the nitric oxide linker moiety and nitric oxide together has a structure selected from: In a further aspect, the nitric oxide linker moiety and nitric oxide together has a structure represented by a formula selected from: wherein q is selected from 1, 2, 3, and 4; wherein each of Q1and Q2is independently selected from S and NR4; wherein each occurrence of R4, when present, is independently selected from hydrogen, C1-C4 alkyl, and a protecting group; and wherein each occurrence of R6a, R6b, R6c, and R6dis independently selected from hydrogen and C1-C4 alkyl. In a further aspect, the nitric oxide linker moiety and nitric oxide together has a structure represented by a formula: In a further aspect, the nitric oxide linker moiety and nitric oxide together has a structure represented by a formula: In a further aspect, the nitric oxide linker moiety and nitric oxide together has a structure represented by a formula: In a further aspect, the nitric oxide linker moiety and nitric oxide together has a structure represented by a formula: In a further aspect, the nitric oxide linker moiety and nitric oxide together has a structure represented by a formula: In a further aspect, the nitric oxide linker moiety and nitric oxide together has a structure represented by a formula: In a further aspect, the nitric oxide linker moiety and nitric oxide together has a structure represented by a formula selected from: wherein each of r and t is independently selected from 0 and 1; wherein s is selected from 1, 2, and 3; wherein each of Q1and Q2is independently selected from S and NR4; wherein each occurrence of R4, when present, is independently selected from hydrogen, C1-C4 alkyl, and a protecting group; wherein each occurrence of R7a, R7b, R7c, and R7dis independently selected from hydrogen and C1-C4 alkyl; and wherein each occurrence of Ar1is independently selected from aryl, five-membered heteroaryl, and six-membered heteroaryl and is substituted with 0-4 non-hydrogen groups independently selected from halogen, —OH, —CN, C1-C4 alkyl, C1-C4 alkoxy, and C1-C4 haloalkyl. In a further aspect, the nitric oxide linker moiety and nitric oxide together has a structure represented by a formula: In a further aspect, the nitric oxide linker moiety and nitric oxide together has a structure represented by a formula: In a further aspect, the nitric oxide linker moiety and nitric oxide together has a structure represented by a formula: In a further aspect, the nitric oxide linker moiety and nitric oxide together has a structure represented by a formula: In a further aspect, the nitric oxide linker moiety and nitric oxide together has a structure represented by a formula selected from: In a further aspect, the nitric oxide linker moiety and nitric oxide together has a structure represented by a formula: In a further aspect, the nitric oxide linker moiety and nitric oxide together has a structure represented by a formula: In a further aspect, the nitric oxide linker moiety and nitric oxide together has a structure represented by a formula selected from: In a further aspect, the nitric oxide linker moiety and nitric oxide together has a structure represented by a formula: In a further aspect, the nitric oxide linker moiety and nitric oxide together has a structure represented by a formula: In a further aspect, the nitric oxide linker moiety and nitric oxide together has a structure selected from: In a further aspect, the nitric oxide linker moiety and nitric oxide together has a structure selected from: In one aspect, disclosed are pharmaceutical composition comprising a therapeutically effective amount of at least one degradable polymer comprising: (a) a biodegradable polymer backbone; (b) at least one nitric oxide linker moiety pendant from the polymer backbone; and (c) at least one nitric oxide molecule covalently bonded to the nitric oxide linker moiety, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. In various aspects, the compounds and compositions of the invention can be administered in pharmaceutical compositions, which are formulated according to the intended method of administration. The compounds and compositions described herein can be formulated in a conventional manner using one or more physiologically acceptable carriers or excipients. The compounds and compositions featured in the invention can be administered by any standard route of administration. For example, administration can be parenteral, intravenous, subcutaneous, or oral. In various aspects, the disclosed pharmaceutical compositions comprise the disclosed compounds (including pharmaceutically acceptable salt(s) thereof) as an active ingredient, a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier, and, optionally, other therapeutic ingredients or adjuvants. The instant compositions include those suitable for oral, rectal, topical, and parenteral (including subcutaneous, intramuscular, and intravenous) administration, although the most suitable route in any given case will depend on the particular host, and nature and severity of the conditions for which the active ingredient is being administered. The pharmaceutical compositions can be conveniently presented in unit dosage form and prepared by any of the methods well known in the art of pharmacy. In various aspects, the pharmaceutical compositions of this invention can include a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier and a compound or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt of the compounds of the invention. The compounds of the invention, or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, can also be included in pharmaceutical compositions in combination with one or more other therapeutically active compounds. The pharmaceutical carrier employed can be, for example, a solid, liquid, or gas. Examples of solid carriers include lactose, terra alba, sucrose, talc, gelatin, agar, pectin, acacia, magnesium stearate, and stearic acid. Examples of liquid carriers are sugar syrup, peanut oil, olive oil, and water. Examples of gaseous carriers include carbon dioxide and nitrogen. A tablet containing the composition of this invention can be prepared by compression or molding, optionally with one or more accessory ingredients or adjuvants. Compressed tablets can be prepared by compressing, in a suitable machine, the active ingredient in a free-flowing form such as powder or granules, optionally mixed with a binder, lubricant, inert diluent, surface active or dispersing agent. Molded tablets can be made by molding in a suitable machine, a mixture of the powdered compound moistened with an inert liquid diluent. The pharmaceutical compositions of the present invention comprise a compound of the invention (or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof) as an active ingredient, a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier, and optionally one or more additional therapeutic agents or adjuvants. In various aspects, the instant compositions are soluble in organic solvents, facilitating application as a dopant for polymer films. The instant compositions include compositions suitable for oral, rectal, topical, and parenteral (including subcutaneous, intramuscular, and intravenous) administration, although the most suitable route in any given case will depend on the particular host, and nature and severity of the conditions for which the active ingredient is being administered. The pharmaceutical compositions can be conveniently presented in unit dosage form and prepared by any of the methods well known in the art of pharmacy. In addition to the aforementioned carrier ingredients, the pharmaceutical formulations described above can include, as appropriate, one or more additional carrier ingredients such as diluents, buffers, flavoring agents, binders, surface-active agents, thickeners, lubricants, preservatives (including anti-oxidants) and the like. Furthermore, other adjuvants can be included to render the formulation isotonic with the blood of the intended recipient. Compositions containing a compound of the invention, and/or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, can also be prepared in powder or liquid concentrate form. In a further aspect, an effective amount is a therapeutically effective amount. In a still further aspect, an effective amount is a prophylactically effective amount. In a further aspect, the pharmaceutical composition is administered to a mammal. In a still further aspect, the mammal is a human. In an even further aspect, the human is a patient. In a further aspect, the pharmaceutical composition is used to deliver nitric oxide to a target. In a still further aspect, the target is a subject. In yet a further aspect, the target is a mammal. In an even further aspect, the mammal is a human. In a further aspect, the pharmaceutical composition is administered to a subject. In a still further aspect, the subject has been diagnosed with having abnormal cell proliferation, transplantation rejection, thrombosis, restenosis, ischemic injury, a hypertrophic lesion, a keloid, platelet aggregation, or platelet adhesion prior to the administering step. In yet a further aspect, the subject has been diagnosed with a need of wound healing prior to the administering step. In an even further aspect, the subject has had or currently has an intravenous device and/or a glucose biosensor. In a further aspect, the pharmaceutical composition is used to treat a disorder selected from cancer, a cardiovascular disease, a bacterial infection, a circulatory dysfunction, a gastrointestinal disorder, or a sexually transmitted disease. It is understood that the disclosed compositions can be prepared from the disclosed compounds. It is also understood that the disclosed compositions can be employed in the disclosed methods of using. In one aspect, disclosed are methods of making a degradable polymer, the method comprising the step of functionalizing a polymer scaffold with a nitric oxide donor, wherein the polymer scaffold comprises: (a) a biodegradable polymer backbone; and (b) at least one nitric oxide linker moiety pendant from the polymer backbone, thereby making the degradable polymer. In one aspect, disclosed are methods of making a polymer, the method comprising: (a) reacting a polymer comprising at least one hydroxyl group and acryloyl halide to form a vinyl-functionalized polymer; and (b) reacting the vinyl-functionalized polymer with a dinucleophile to form a polymer scaffold, thereby making the polymer. In one aspect, disclosed are methods of making a polymer, the method comprising: (a) reacting a polymer comprising at least one hydroxyl group and acryloyl halide to form a vinyl-functionalized polymer; and (b) reacting the vinyl-functionalized polymer with a nucleophile to form a polymer scaffold, thereby making the polymer. In a further aspect, the polymer backbone is a polyester backbone. In a further aspect, the polymer is hyperbranched. In a further aspect, the polymer is a polyester. In a still further aspect, the polymer is a bis-MPA polyester. In a further aspect, the polymer comprises at least one polyester residue. In a further aspect, the nucleophile is an amine. In a still further aspect, the nucleophile is a dinucleophile. In a further aspect, the dinucleophile is a dithiol. In a still further aspect, the dinucleophile is a diamine. In yet a further aspect, the dinucleophile comprises a thiol and an amine. In a further aspect, the dinucleophile is selected from: In a further aspect, the dinucleophile is selected from: In a further aspect, the dinucleophile has a structure represented by a formula: In a further aspect, the dinucleophile is selected from: In a further aspect, the dinucleophile is selected from: In a further aspect, the dinucleophile has a structure represented by a formula: In a further aspect, the polyester scaffold comprises at least one residue selected from: In a further aspect, the polyester scaffold comprises at least one residue selected from: In a further aspect, the polyester scaffold comprises at least one residue having a structure represented by a formula: In a further aspect, the polyester scaffold comprises at least one residue selected from: In a further aspect, the polyester scaffold comprises at least one residue selected from: In a further aspect, the polyester scaffold comprises at least one residue having a structure represented by a formula: In a further aspect, the method further comprises the step of reacting a compound comprising at least one hydroxyl group with a repeating unit comprising at least one carboxylate group and at least one hydroxyl group, thereby making the polymer comprising at least one hydroxyl group. In a further aspect, the compound comprising at least one hydroxyl group is selected from trimethylolpropane, di-trimethylolpropane, 2,2-bis(hydroxymethyl)propane-1,3-diol, glycerol, 1,3,5-tris(2-hydroxyethyl)cyanuric acid, and ethoxylated tetra(hydroxymethyl)methane. In a further aspect, the repeating unit has a structure represented by a formula: wherein each occurrence of n is independently selected from 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4; wherein R1ais selected from —OH, C1-C4 alkyl, and C1-C4 hydroxyalkyl; and wherein R1bis selected from C1-C4 alkyl and C1-C4 hydroxyalkyl. In a further aspect, the repeating unit has a structure: In a further aspect, the molar ratio of the compound comprising at least one hydroxyl group to the repeating unit is of from about 1:9 to about 1:45. In a still further aspect, the molar ratio of the compound comprising at least one hydroxyl group to the repeating unit is of from about 1:9 to about 1:5. In yet a further aspect, the molar ratio of the compound comprising at least one hydroxyl group to the repeating unit is of from about 1:9 to about 1:6. In an even further aspect, the molar ratio of the compound comprising at least one hydroxyl group to the repeating unit is of from about 1:9 to about 1:7. In a still further aspect, the molar ratio of the compound comprising at least one hydroxyl group to the repeating unit is of from about 1:9 to about 1:8. In yet a further aspect, the molar ratio of the compound comprising at least one hydroxyl group to the repeating unit is of from about 1:8 to about 1:45. In an even further aspect, the molar ratio of the compound comprising at least one hydroxyl group to the repeating unit is of from about 1:7 to about 1:45. In a still further aspect, the molar ratio of the compound comprising at least one hydroxyl group to the repeating unit is of from about 1:6 to about 1:45. In a further aspect, the method further comprises the step of functionalizing a polymer scaffold with a nitric oxide donor, thereby making a degradable polymer. In a still further aspect, reacting is via nitrosation. In yet a further aspect, reacting is via exposure to nitric oxide gas under basic conditions. In one aspect, disclosed are methods of delivering nitric oxide to a target, the method comprising: (a) administering to the target an effective amount of a degradable polymer comprising: (i) a biodegradable polymer backbone; (ii) at least one nitric oxide linker moiety pendant from the polymer backbone; and (iii) at least one nitric oxide molecule covalently bonded to the nitric oxide linker moiety; and (b) exposing the degradable polymer to at least one of heat, light, copper, a free thiol, and/or a proton source, thereby delivering nitric oxide to the target. In a further aspect, the target is a subject. In a still further aspect, the subject is a mammal. In yet a further aspect, the mammal is a human. In a further aspect, the subject has been diagnosed with having abnormal cell proliferation, transplantation rejection, thrombosis, restenosis, ischemic injury, a hypertrophic lesion, a keloid, platelet aggregation, or platelet adhesion prior to the administering step. In a still further aspect, the subject has been diagnosed with a need of wound healing prior to the administering step. In yet a further aspect, the subject has had or currently has an intravenous device and/or a glucose biosensor. In a further aspect, the effective amount is a therapeutically effective amount. In a still further aspect, the effective amount is a prophylactically effective amount. In a further aspect, the degradable polymer is exposed to at least one of heat, light, copper, and/or a free thiol. In a still further aspect, the degradable polymer is exposed to a proton source. In one aspect, disclosed are methods for the treatment of a disorder in a subject, the method comprising the step of administering to the subject an effective amount of a degradable polymer comprising: (a) a biodegradable polymer backbone; (b) at least one nitric oxide linker moiety pendant from the polymer backbone; and (c) at least one nitric oxide molecule covalently bonded to the nitric oxide linker moiety. In a further aspect, the disorder is selected from cancer, a cardiovascular disease, a bacterial infection, a circulatory dysfunction, a gastrointestinal disorder, or a sexually transmitted disease. In a further aspect, the subject has been diagnosed with a need for treatment of the disorder prior to the administering step. In a further aspect, the method further comprises the step of identifying a subject in need of treatment of the disorder. In one aspect, the invention relates to articles comprising the disclosed compositions. In a further aspect, the present invention contemplates the use of the disclosed compositions in the manufacture of certain items such as articles. 1. Medical Devices In one aspect, disclosed are medical devices comprising a nitric oxide-releasing polymeric film, wherein the polymer film comprises an effective amount of at least one polymer comprising: (a) a polymer backbone; (b) at least one nitric oxide linker moiety pendant from the polymer backbone; and (c) at least one nitric oxide molecule covalently bonded to the nitric oxide linker moiety. In a further aspect, the medical device comprises at least one surface coated with the polymeric film. In a further aspect, the polymer is a degradable polymer. In a still further aspect, the polymer backbone is a biodegradable polymer backbone. In a further aspect, the polymer is hyperbranched. In a further aspect, the medical device is selected from an arterial stent, a guide wire, a catheter, a trocar needle, a bone anchor, a bone screw, a protective plating, a hip or joint replacement, an electrical lead, a biosensor, a probe, a surgical drape, a wound dressing, and a bandage. In a still further aspect, the medical device is a biosensor. In yet a further aspect, the biosensor is a glucose biosensor. The following examples are put forth so as to provide those of ordinary skill in the art with a complete disclosure and description of how the compounds, compositions, articles, devices and/or methods claimed herein are made and evaluated, and are intended to be purely exemplary of the invention and are not intended to limit the scope of what the inventors regard as their invention. Efforts have been made to ensure accuracy with respect to numbers (e.g., amounts, temperature, etc.), but some errors and deviations should be accounted for. Unless indicated otherwise, parts are parts by weight, temperature is in ° C. or is at ambient temperature, and pressure is at or near atmospheric. The Examples are provided herein to illustrate the invention, and should not be construed as limiting the invention in any way. Examples are provided herein to illustrate the invention and should not be construed as limiting the invention in any way. 1. General Experimental Diethylene triamine pentaacetic acid (DTPA), 5,5′-dithio-bis(2-nitrobenzoic acid) (DTNB), sodium acetate, 2,2-bis(hydroxymethyl)propionic acid (bis-MPA), 2-ethyl-2-(hydroxymethyl)-1,3-propanediol (TMP), 1,2-ethanedithiol (ET), 2,3-butanedithiol (BT), dithiothreitol (DTT), and p-toluenesulfonic acid (p-TSA) were purchased from the Aldrich Chemical Company (Milwaukee, Wis.). Water was purified using a Millipore Milli-Q UV Gradient A10 System (Bethlehem, Pa.) to a final resistivity of 18.2 MΩ·cm and total organic content of ≤6 ppb. Common laboratory salts and solvents were purchased from Fisher Scientific (Pittsburgh, Pa.). Unless noted otherwise, all materials were used as received without further purification. Proton nuclear magnetic resonance (1H NMR) spectra were recorded on a 400 MHz Bruker instrument. Quantitative carbon nuclear magnetic resonance (13C NMR) was performed on a 600 MHz Bruker instrument following a previously reported method (E. Malmstrom, M. Johansson and A. Hult, 2. Chemistry Experimental Hyperbranched polyesters were prepared according to Malmstrom et al. (E. Malmstrom, M. Johansson and A. Hult, Hyperbranched polyesters (500 mg of G2, G3, or G4) and triethylamine (TEA; 692 μL) were dissolved in 5 mL acetone, followed by the dropwise addition of an acryloyl chloride (AC) solution (0.4 mL AC in 0.6 mL acetone) over a 5-min period. The reaction mixture was stirred for 1 h at room temperature. Precipitate byproducts were removed via filtration. The residual solvent, acryloyl chloride, and TEA in the filtrate were then removed under vacuum at room temperature.1H NMR data of acrylate-modified hyperbranched polyesters consisted of the following peaks (400 MHz, CD2Cl2, δ): 1.1-1.4 (CH3C), 3.68 (CH2OH), 4.1-4.3 (CH2OCO), 5.84 and 6.27 (CH2═CH), 6.07 (CH2═CH). The acrylate-modified G2-hyperbranched polyesters (200 mg) were dissolved in 2 mL acetone, followed by the addition of TEA (40 μL) and either 1,2-ethylenedithiol (ET; 815 μL) or 2,3-butanedithiol (BT; 1316 μL). Excess ET or BT (20:1 molar ratio compared to acrylate double bonds) was used to minimize crosslinking of the thiol groups. After stirring at room temperature for 18 h, the product was precipitated in hexane and washed with methanol to remove residual ET or BT. The resulting ET or BT thiol-modified hyperbranched polyesters (G2-HP-ET and G2-HP-BT) were collected by centrifugation and dried under vacuum at room temperature for 2 h.1H NMR data of G2-HP-ET consisted of the following peaks (400 MHz, CD2Cl2, δ): 1.1-1.4 (CH3C), 2.6-2.9 (SCH2CH2SH), (SCH2CH2SH), (COCH2CH2SCH2), and (COCH2CH2SCH2), 3.65 (CH2OH), and 4.10-4.3 (CH2OCO).1H NMR data of G2-HP-BT consisted of the following peaks (400 MHz, CD2Cl2, δ): 1.1-1.4 (CH3C), (SCHCH3) and (CH3CHSH), 2.6 (COCH2CH2SCHCH3), 2.85 (COCH2CH2SCHCH3), 2.95 (SCHCH3CHCH3SH), 3.2 (SCHCH3CHCH3SH), 3.65 (CH2OH), and 4.1-4.3 (CH2OCO). Dithiothreitol-modified hyperbranched polyesters (G2-HP-DTT, G3-HP-DTT, and G4-HP-DTT) were synthesized using a similar procedure. Dithiothreitol (DTT) (1648 mg) and TEA (40 μL) were mixed with either G2, G3, or G4 hyperbranched polyesters (200 mg) in 2 mL acetone. The resulting thiol-modified polyesters were precipitated in water and collected via centrifugation. The residual solvent was removed under vacuum at room temperature.1H NMR data of the DTT-modified hyperbranched polyesters consisted of the following peaks. G2-HP-DTT (400 MHz, CD2Cl2, δ): 1.1-1.4 (CH3C), 2.6-2.9 (COCH2CH2S), (COCH2CH2S), (SCH2CH(OH)), and (CH(OH)CH2SH), 3.65 (CH2OH), 3.70 (SCH2CH(OH)CH(OH)) and (CHCH(OH)CH2SH), 4.10-4.3 (CH2OCO). G3-HP-DTT (400 MHz, CD2Cl2, δ): 1.1-1.4 (CH3C), 2.6-2.9 (COCH2CH2S), (COCH2CH2S), (SCH2CH(OH)), and (CH(OH)CH2SH), 3.65 (CH2OH), 3.70 (SCH2CH(OH)CH(OH)) and (CHCH(OH)CH2SH), 4.10-4.3 (CH2OCO). G4-HP-DTT (400 MHz, CD2Cl2, δ): 1.1-1.4 (CH3C), 2.6-2.9 (COCH2CH2S), (COCH2CH2S), (SCH2CH(OH)), and (CH(OH)CH2SH), 3.65 (CH2OH), 3.70 (SCH2CH(OH)CH(OH)) and (CHCH(OH)CH2SH), 4.1-4.3 (CH2OCO). The thiol-modified hyperbranched polyesters (10 mg) were dissolved in acetone (1 mL) and 5 M hydrochloric acid (100 μL). An aqueous solution (100 μL) containing sodium nitrite (6.9 mg) and diethylenetriamine pentaacetic acid (DTPA; 500 μM) was then added dropwise to this solution over a 1-min period. After stirring for 1 h at 0° C. (i.e., ice bath) in the dark, the solvent was removed under vacuum. Acetone was used to dissolve the resulting nitrosated polyesters (e.g., G2-HP-ET/NO). The solution was filtered to remove residual salt and then stored at −20° C. in the dark until use. 3. Ellman's Assay for Thiol Quantification of Thiol-Modified Hyperbranched Polyesters The free thiol content was quantified using a modified Ellman's assay (G. Gabor and A. Vincze, 4. Characterization of No Release from S-nitrosothiol-Modified Hyperbranched Polyesters S-Nitrosothiol-functionalized hyperbranched polyesters were added to 30 mL deoxygenated 500 μM DTPA-supplemented phosphate buffered saline (PBS) or regular (DTPA-free) PBS at 37° C. Nitrogen was bubbled through this solution at a flow rate of 70 mL min−1to carry the liberated NO to a Sievers chemiluminescence nitric oxide analyzer (Boulder, Colo.). Additional nitrogen flow was supplied to the flask to match the collection rate of the instrument at 200 mL min−1. The real-time NO-release profiles triggered by copper (0.2 mg mL−1CuBr2), heat (37° C., shielded from light), or light (37° C., 200 W, 15 cm above the reaction flask) were recorded until the observed NO levels decreased below 10 ppb mg−1polyesters (P. N. Coneski and M. H. Schoenfisch, 5. Synthesis of Second Generation thiol-Modified Hyperbranched Polyesters Hyperbranched polyesters (HP) composed of bis-MPA were synthesized as described by Malmstrom et al. The exterior hydroxyl groups were next functionalized with acryloyl chloride to introduce alkene groups to the scaffold (Scheme 1A). Resonances for the alkene protons were split into three distinct peaks at 5.84, 6.07, and 6.27 ppm ( Gel permeation chromatography (GPC) was used to determine the molecular weight (MW) of the hyperbranched polyesters. The similarity between the experimental molecular weight of G2-HP-DTT and the theoretical molar mass indicated negligible crosslinking of the DTT thiols during the reaction (Table 1). This result is most likely due to the reducing capacity of DTT (W. W. Cleland, The free thiol content available for subsequent nitrosation and NO storage was determined using the Ellman's assay (Table 2). Each polyester scaffold exhibited large free thiol content (>2 μmol mg−1), indicating the potential for large NO payloads compared to the polyesters reported by Yapor et al. 6. S-nitrosothiol-Modified G2-Hyperbranched Polyesters Thiol-modified G2-hyperbranched polyesters were nitrosated using sodium nitrite in acidic solutions to produce NO-releasing polyesters (T. Liu, W. Zhang, X. Yang and C. Li, The formation of S-nitrosothiol on the polyesters (G2-HP-ET/NO, G2-HP-BT/NO, and G2-HP-DTT/NO) was confirmed by UV-vis absorption spectroscopy. The peaks at ˜340 nm (intense) and ˜550 nm (broad) correspond to the S-nitrosothiol nO-π* and nN-π* transitions, respectively ( The total NO storage for each S-nitrosothiol modification was measured in a copper bromide (0.2 mg mL−1, 37° C., pH 7.4) supplemented phosphate buffered saline (PBS) solution under dark conditions. Although blood and tissue contain only trace levels of copper ions (Cu2+) (T. V. O'Halloran and V. C. Culotta, The NO-release properties of the hyperbranched polyesters were initially evaluated in PBS solution (37° C., pH 7.4) without the presence of a copper chelator (e.g., DTPA). Regardless of the S-nitrosothiol modification, each scaffold exhibited rapid NO-release kinetics and comparable NO-release half-lives (˜5 min) under light irradiation (Table 3). Similar NO-release kinetics (t1/2<10 min) were still observed for each scaffold modification in the absence of light. This rapid NO release was attributed to copper and more specifically, copper ion-mediated S-nitrosothiol breakdown. The relatively high levels of copper present in untreated PBS (21.5 ppm Cu2+ as measured via inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectrometry) oxidized residual thiolate ions, resulting in Cu+-mediated RSNO decomposition (D. L. H. Williams, As a result of significantly lower basal Cu2+ levels in the human body, RSNO decomposition under physiological condition will likely be restricted to a thermal RSNO-breakdown mechanism (T. V. O'Halloran and V. C. Culotta, The photolysis mechanism of S-nitrosothiol breakdown was also studied in PBS supplemented with DTPA using a broad-spectrum white light source at a power of 200 W (15 cm above the reaction flask). As expected, light triggered more rapid RSNO decomposition and NO release than thermal decomposition alone for each S-nitrosothiol system, corroborating previous reports of similar behavior for S-nitrosothiol-modified macromolecular scaffolds (N. A. Stasko, T. H. Fischer and M. H. Schoenfisch, 7. Higher Generation S-nitrosothiol-Modified Hyperbranched Polyesters Larger molecular weight (i.e., higher generation) hyperbranched polyesters modified with S-nitrosothiol NO donors were also synthesized to evaluate the effect of polyesters generation (i.e., size) on NO-release properties. Specifically, G3 and G4-HP were synthesized using TMP to bis-MPA ratios of 1:21 and 1:45, respectively. The theoretical number of hydroxyl groups available for subsequent chemical modification for these polyesters was determined using1H NMR to be ˜18 for G3-HP and ˜40 for G4-HP. The13C NMR data ( The subsequent acryloyl chloride conversion efficiency was found to be 56±6 and 66±8% for G3-HP and G4-HP, respectively, corresponding to an average of ˜10 and 28 double bonds per scaffold. The G3-HP and G4-HP polyesters were then modified with DTT. As expected, any evidence of remaining double bonds was lost following this reaction ( Although G2-HP-DTT and G4-HP-DTT exhibited similar thiol content, the thiol levels for the G3-HP-DTT scaffold was noticeably less (Table 5). This decrease is attributed to lower acryloyl chloride modification efficiency. The success of S-nitrosothiol functional group addition was again examined by UV-vis spectroscopy ( Lastly, the NO-release properties of the HP-DTT/NO polyesters were evaluated as a function of scaffold size (Table 5, Table 6). As might be expected based on the smaller thiol levels, G3-HP-DTT/NO exhibited slightly lower NO payloads relative to G4-HP-DTT/NO. Nevertheless, the nitrosation efficiency (capacity to form NO donors) was similar regardless of scaffold size. In PBS without a copper chelator, the NO-release kinetics were similar regardless of size, with light irradiation having little effect on NO release (t1/2<10 min). However, the NO-release kinetics were highly dependent on polyester generation in DTPA-supplemented PBS. In the absence of light irradiation, larger sizes led to longer NO-release for the three sizes investigated (i.e., G2, G3, and G4). In this manner, the extended NO-release kinetics for the G3-HP-DTT/NO and G4-HP-DTT/NO scaffolds were attributed to differences in the RSNO microenvironment between the generations. As illustrated below (see Table 7), the polyester suspensions exhibited similar hydrodynamic (DLS) sizes regardless of generation. The inherent greater density of RSNO donors (number of RSNO groups per hydrodynamic radius) for G4-HP-DTT/NO cultivated the recombination of geminate radical pairs (i.e., cage effect) (T. Liu, W. Zhang, X. Yang and C. Li, It will be apparent to those skilled in the art that various modifications and variations can be made in the present invention without departing from the scope or spirit of the invention. Other aspects of the invention will be apparent to those skilled in the art from consideration of the specification and practice of the invention disclosed herein. It is intended that the specification and examples be considered as exemplary only, with a true scope and spirit of the invention being indicated by the following claims. The invention generally relates to compositions comprising degradable polymers and methods of making degradable polymers. Specifically, the disclosed degradable polymers comprise a biodegradable polymer backbone, a nitric oxide linker moiety, and a nitric oxide molecule. This abstract is intended as a scanning tool for purposes of searching in the particular art and is not intended to be limiting of the present invention. 1. A degradable polymer comprising:
(a) a biodegradable polymer backbone; (b) at least one nitric oxide linker moiety pendant from the polymer backbone; and (c) at least one nitric oxide molecule covalently bonded to the nitric oxide linker moiety. 2. The polymer of 3. The polymer of 4. The polymer of wherein each occurrence of n is independently selected from 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4; wherein each of R1aand R1bis independently selected from —OH, C1-C4 alkyl, C1-C4 hydroxyalkyl, and —(CH2)nOC(O)L, provided that at least one of R1aand R1bis —(CH2)nOC(O)L; and
wherein L is the nitric oxide linker moiety. 5. The polymer of wherein L is the nitric oxide linker moiety. 6. The polymer of wherein each of m, o, and p is independently selected from 1, 2, 3, and 4; wherein each of Q1and Q2is independently selected from S and NR4;
wherein each occurrence of R4, when present, is independently selected from hydrogen, C1-C4 alkyl, and a protecting group; and wherein each occurrence of R2a, R2b, R2c, and R2dis independently selected from hydrogen and C1-C4 alkyl; wherein each occurrence of R3aand R3bis independently selected from hydrogen, —OR5, and C1-C4 alkyl; and
wherein R5, when present, is selected from hydrogen, C1-C4 alkyl, and an alcohol protecting group. 7. The polymer of 8. The polymer of wherein q is selected from 1, 2, 3, and 4; wherein each of Q1and Q2is independently selected from S and NR4;
wherein each occurrence of R4, when present, is independently selected from hydrogen, C1-C4 alkyl, and a protecting group; and wherein each occurrence of R6a, R6b, R6c, and R6dis independently selected from hydrogen and C1-C4 alkyl. 9. The polymer of 10. The polymer of wherein each of r and t is independently selected from 0 and 1; wherein s is selected from 1, 2, and 3; wherein each of Q1and Q2is independently selected from S and NR4;
wherein each occurrence of R4, when present, is independently selected from hydrogen, C1-C4 alkyl, and a protecting group; wherein each occurrence of R7a, R7b, R7c, and R7dis independently selected from hydrogen and C1-C4 alkyl; and wherein each occurrence of Ar1is independently selected from aryl, five-membered heteroaryl, and six-membered heteroaryl and is substituted with 0-4 non-hydrogen groups independently selected from halogen, —OH, —CN, C1-C4 alkyl, C1-C4 alkoxy, and C1-C4 haloalkyl. 11. The polymer of 12. The polymer of 13. A pharmaceutical composition comprising a therapeutically effective amount of at least one degradable polymer of 14. A polymer comprising:
(a) a biodegradable polymer backbone; and (b) at least one nitric oxide linker moiety pendant from the polymer backbone. 15. The polymer of 16. The polymer of 17. The polymer of 18. A method for the treatment of a disorder in a subject, the method comprising the step of administering to the subject an effective amount of a degradable polymer comprising:
(a) a biodegradable polymer backbone; (b) at least one nitric oxide linker moiety pendant from the polymer backbone; and (c) at least one nitric oxide molecule covalently bonded to the nitric oxide linker moiety. 19. The method of 20. The method of CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS
STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH
BACKGROUND
SUMMARY
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS
DETAILED DESCRIPTION
A. Definitions
B. Degradable Polymers
C. Pharmaceutical Compositions
D. Methods of Making a Degradable Polymer
E. Methods of Delivering Nitric Oxide to a Target
F. Methods for the Treatment of a Disorder
G. Articles
H. Examples
a. Synthesis of Hyperbranched Polyesters
b. Synthesis of acrylate-Modified Hyperbranched Polyesters
c. Synthesis of 1,2-ethylenedithiol-, 2,3-butanedithiol-, and dithiothreitol-Modified Hyperbranched Polyesters
d. Nitrosation of thiol-Modified Hyperbranched Polyesters
G2-HP 1179 1700 ± 180 1.32 ± 0.02 G2-HP-ET 2783 3510 ± 220 1.31 ± 0.04 G2-HP-BT 2867 4970 ± 940 1.33 ± 0.02 G2-HP-DTT 2986 2530 ± 570 1.39 ± 0.13 an ≥ 3 separate syntheses; bTheoretical molar mass of thiol-modified G2-HP derived from the experimental molar mass of G2-HP and ~6 dithiols modification for each polyesters. cMolecular weight determined by GPC analysis. G2-HP-ET 1.96 ± 0.04 1.60 ± 0.27 81.8 ± 13.7 G2-HP-BT 2.38 ± 0.07 1.97 ± 0.41 82.8 ± 17.2 G2-HP-DTT 2.20 ± 0.17 1.84 ± 0.21 83.6 ± 9.5 an ≥ 3 separate syntheses; bThiol content determined by Ellman's assay; cNO-release totals measured in 0.2 mg mL−1CuBr2-supplemented PBS solution. dNitrosation efficiency calculated from dividing NO totals by thiol content. G2-HP-ET/NO G2-HP-BT/NO G2-HP-DTT/NO t[NO]b t1/2c t[NO]b t1/2c t[NO]b t1/2c DTPA Light (μmol/mg) (min) (μmol/mg) (min) (μmol/mg) (min) Yes No 1.40 ± 0.17 84 ± 24 0.99 ± 0.20 190 ± 46 1.47 ± 0.24 53 ± 28 Yes Yes 1.55 ± 0.22 36 ± 16 1.14 ± 0.24 75 ± 19 1.43 ± 0.10 42 ± 12 No No 1.40 ± 0.15 5 ± 2 1.90 ± 0.29 10 ± 2 1.73 ± 0.17 7 ± 2 No Yes 1.65 ± 0.10 5 ± 2 1.79 ± 0.12 5 ± 3 1.69 ± 0.24 6 ± 3 an ≥ 3 separate syntheses; bTotal NO storage per milligram polyesters; cHalf-life of NO release. G2-HP 1179 1700 ± 180 1.32 ± 0.02 G2-HP-DTT 2986 2530 ± 580 1.39 ± 0.13 G3-HP 2573 2820 ± 270 1.44 ± 0.13 G3-HP-DTT 4950 4430 ± 260 1.28 ± 0.12 G4-HP 5359 3570 ± 420 1.56 ± 0.11 G4-HP-DTT 9525 6240 ± 980 1.12 ± 0.00 an ≥ 3 separate syntheses. bTheoretical molar mass of thiol-modified HP derived from the experimental molar mass of HP and corresponding amount of dithiols modification for each polyesters. cMolecular weight determined by GPC. G2-HP-DTT 2.20 ± 0.17 1.84 ± 0.21 83.6 ± 9.5 G3-HP-DTT 1.85 ± 0.16 1.48 ± 0.29 79.8 ± 15.6 G4-HP-DTT 2.15 ± 0.13 1.84 ± 0.16 85.5 ± 7.8 an ≥ 3 separate syntheses; bThiol content determined by Ellman's assay; cNO-release total amounts measured in 0.2 mg mL−1CuBr2-supplemented PBS solution. dNitrosation efficiency calculated from dividing NO totals by thiol content. G2-HP-DTT/NO G3-HP-DTT/NO G4-HP-DTT/NO t[NO]b t1/2c t[NO]b t1/2c t[NO]b t1/2c DTPA Light (μmol/mg) (min) (μmol/mg) (min) (μmol/mg) (min) Yes No 1.47 ± 0.24 56 ± 24 1.26 ± 0.39 70 ± 29 1.53 ± 0.04 171 ± 56 Yes Yes 1.43 ± 0.10 42 ± 12 1.05 ± 0.20 42 ± 15 1.43 ± 0.10 132 ± 35 No No 1.73 ± 0.17 7 ± 2 1.47 ± 0.32 4 ± 2 1.83 ± 0.18 7 ± 3 No Yes 1.69 ± 0.24 6 ± 3 1.50 ± 0.42 3 ± 1 1.90 ± 0.22 9 ± 3 an ≥ 3 separate syntheses; bTotal NO storage per milligram polyesters; cHalf-life of NO release. G2-HP-DTT/NO 1170 ± 160 0.12 ± 0.07 G3-HP-DTT/NO 1050 ± 180 0.10 ± 0.07 G4-HP-DTT/NO 987 ± 150 0.09 ± 0.06 an ≥ 3 separate syntheses. bAs determined by Dynamic Light Scattering. The concentration of NO-releasing scaffold in PBS solution for DLS measurement was the same with for NO analyzer measurement (0.33 mg mL−1). REFERENCES
